Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi
SUSTAINABLE HOUSING DENSIFICATION IN KILELESHWA:
NAIROBI, KENYA
BY
KIAI, SAMUEL KINYUA
REG. NO. B63/64138/2010
B.ARCH.HONS, (JKUAT)
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE REQUIREMENTS OF
MASTERS OF ARTS DEGREE IN PLANNING
DEPARTMENT OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING
SCHOOL OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
JULY 2013
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi ii
DECLARATION
I declare that this thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other 
university.
Signed………………………………………. Date…………………………………..
KIAI, SAMUEL KINYUA REG.NO. B63/64138/2010
(Candidate)
This thesis has been submitted for examination with our approval as university supervisors.
Signed………………………………………. Date…………………………………..
PROF. PETER M.NGAU
(Supervisor)
Signed………………………………………. Date…………………………………..
MR.CHARLES D.KARISA 
(Supervisor)
Department of Urban and Regional Planning
UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi
DEDICATION
This project is dedicated to my wife Charity and my three lovely daughters Esther, Caren and 
Neriah.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to acknowledge all those who have contributed to the completion of this work. First, 
I acknowledge that I owe this work to the Almighty God who gave me strength, resources and 
time to carry out this study. Many friends and colleagues have also greatly supported this 
undertaking through prayers, moral support, encouragement and other ways that made the 
journey bearable. 
I must acknowledge the immense contribution of my supervisors Prof. Peter Ngau and  
Mr. Dadu Karisa who made me reach this far. Their tireless effort and guidance helped to 
produce this piece of work and to them I am greatly indebted. I also express my gratitude to Dr. 
Samuel Obiero, Chairman of the Department of Urban and Regional Planning and other
academic staff members namely Professor Ndegwa, Professor Akatch, Dr. Mwangi, Dr. Mugo, 
Mr. Maleche, Mr. Murimi and others who have offered immense knowledge during my study.
I further appreciate non teaching staff members namely Eunice, Beatrice and Esther who often 
went out of their way to offer valuable assistance. I cannot also forget the assistance from Mr. 
Kindiga of City Council of Nairobi and Reginah of NEMA, Nairobi county office
Special thanks go to my colleagues Moses, Njihia, Karanja, Muchemi and Ewoi for providing 
the warmth of friendship, positive input and encouragement. 
Finally I acknowledge my family for patience and enduring long hours of my absence during the 
study period.
To all those who have contributed to this work in one way or another and may not have been 
mentioned above, I express my heartfelt gratitude.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi v
ABSTRACT
The world is rapidly urbanizing. Many nations all over the world are struggling with the critical 
challenge of planning urban systems that can accommodate and manage the dynamic processes 
associated with urban development change. The high level of urbanization has meant that many 
cities are facing enormous pressure to keep up with the needs of their swelling populations.
In Kenya, the rising urban population has brought along a number of challenges that are 
manifested in terms of urban sprawl, congested infrastructure, pollution as well crowding and 
densification of existing development.
Several studies have been undertaken on the various models of city growth and the merits and 
demerits that are associated with both compact city model and the horizontal city. The process of 
urban sprawl outward places enormous pressure on government to keep up with the 
infrastructure needs. There are also associated ecological foot prints, and this has made 
governments to promote housing and planning policies aimed at achieving urban densification or 
urban consolidation. This is in an attempt to halt the spread of populations outward into fringe 
suburbs, by focusing on rejuvenating and revitalizing existing buildings, roads and public spaces 
closer to the city centre in such a way to accommodate higher densities. This factor underlies the
rapid transformation of Kileleshwa neighbourhood in Nairobi from low density high income 
zone to high density middle income zone within the last few years. 
At the same time, the high property values closer to the city centre has put intense pressure on 
government and local authorities to enhance the density standards so that developers can be able 
to recoup their investments by increasing their output in terms of housing units per unit area of 
land. Two recent studies have been done in Nairobi’s Zone 3, 4 and 5, in 2006 and 2011.
Subsequent to these studies, areas such as Kileleshwa which falls under zone 4 have experienced 
increasing densities that in some instances are not even in accordance with policy. The resultant 
developments have strained infrastructural services which have not been expanded to support the 
growth. The negative impacts associated with the current densification programmes in our urban 
areas are a cause of concern that call for further study to establish the extent to which such 
programs do promote sustainable development as provided in our constitution as one of the 
national values and principles of governance.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi vi
This study was undertaken to determine the extent and nature of housing densification in 
Kileleshwa and examine the physical and ecological impacts of the densification process. 
Further, the study went to investigate the role of green designs and strategies in promoting 
sustainable development and the extent to which integrating these strategies within the 
development control framework can guide our cities towards sustainable housing densification. 
This was with the aim of developing an alternative intervening policy which can be advanced to 
guide sustainable densification process in Kileleshwa.
The study hypothesized that the current housing densification in Kileleshwa is unsustainable and 
requires alternative low impact strategies. The study objectives were thus: to determine the 
extent and nature of the housing densification in Kileleshwa; to examine the physical and 
ecological impacts of the densification process; to investigate the extent to which green designs 
and strategies can be used to mitigate negative impacts of densification process; and finally to
develop an alternative intervening policy which can be advanced to guide sustainable 
densification process in Kileleshwa.
Sources of primary data included personal observation, land use survey, household surveys, key 
informant interviews, photography and mapping. Secondary data sources included journals, 
research materials, text books, government reports as well as internet sources. The data from the 
questionnaires was analyzed using statistical data analysis software, SPSS and consequently
conclusions and recommendations were derived based on the study findings
The study found out that there is both vertical and horizontal housing density expansion in 
Kileleshwa. The densification process has significant physical and ecological impacts on the 
environment which include; water shortage, power shortage, traffic congestion, pollution, 
flooding and encroachment on riparian. Others include land use conflict, loss of urban green and 
insufficient community facilities. The study further found out that the City Council and NEMA 
as the main regulatory bodies lack sufficient legal, financial and human capacity to enforce green 
strategies suitable for sustainable densification programmes.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi vii
The study recommends that the Nairobi County Government should integrate green design
strategies as mandatory requirements within the development control framework for all 
upcoming developments in the study area. It further recommends that development control in 
Kileleshwa should be streamlined and enforcement of planning regulations strengthened. Lastly, 
the study recommends that existing infrastructure in the area should be upgraded to 
accommodate the increasing population capacity.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION........................................................................................................................ ii
DEDICATION .......................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ......................................................................................................... iv
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................... v
TABLE OF CONTENTS.........................................................................................................viii
LIST OF MAPS ...................................................................................................................... xvi
LIST OF PLATES.................................................................................................................. xvii
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ xviii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.................................................................................................. xix
CHAPTER 1 .............................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement ............................................................................................................ 2
1.3 Purpose of the study.......................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Study scope....................................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Research Questions........................................................................................................... 4
1.6 Research Objectives.......................................................................................................... 4
1.7 Research Hypothesis......................................................................................................... 4
1.8 Study Justification ............................................................................................................ 5
1.9 Research Methodology ..................................................................................................... 6
1.9.1 Research design .......................................................................................................... 6
1.9.2 Source of data and data collection method .................................................................. 7
1.9.3 Sampling design ......................................................................................................... 8
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi ix
1.9.4 Data Analysis and Data Presentation........................................................................... 9
1.9.5 Data needs matrix ..................................................................................................... 10
1.10 Study Assumptions ....................................................................................................... 12
1.11 Definition of Key Terms and Concepts ......................................................................... 12
CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................................ 14
LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................................... 14
2.1 Case for Densification..................................................................................................... 14
2.1.1 Key elements of compact city ...................................................................................... 15
2.1.2 Intelligent densification................................................................................................ 17
2.2 Sustainable Development ................................................................................................ 19
2.2.1 Sustainable city......................................................................................................... 20
2.2.2 Walkable and well connected community ................................................................. 21
2.2.3 A Low-impact transportation System........................................................................ 22
2.2.4 Green buildings ........................................................................................................ 22
2.2.5 Flexible open space................................................................................................... 30
2.2.6 Green Infrastructure.................................................................................................. 34
2.2.7 A healthy food system .............................................................................................. 39
2.2.8 Community facilities and programs........................................................................... 39
2.2.9 Economic development............................................................................................. 40
2.3 Sustainable Designs ........................................................................................................ 40
2.3.1 Sustainable tall building............................................................................................ 41
2.3.2 Bioclimatic design at the site planning scale ............................................................. 45
2.3.3 Use of ground cover and planting for site cooling ..................................................... 45
2.3.4 Use of atrium or courtyard to provide onsite evaporative cooling mechanism ........... 46
2.3.5 Site design ................................................................................................................ 47
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi x
2.3.6 Site utilities............................................................................................................... 50
2.3.6.1 Storm drainage....................................................................................................... 50
2.3.6.2 Water supply.......................................................................................................... 51
2.3.6.3 Garbage and solid waste prevention ....................................................................... 51
2.4 The Factors That Affect Densification and Their Implications ............................................ 54
2.5 Theories of Urban Land use Structure................................................................................. 55
2.5.1 Classical models: ...................................................................................................... 55
2.5.2 Contemporary models............................................................................................... 62
2.6 Case studies ................................................................................................................... 65
2.6.1 Cape Town Densification Strategy .............................................................................. 65
2.6.2 São Paulo, Brazil......................................................................................................... 68
2.7 Legal Frameworks, Policies and Institutional Frameworks............................................. 70
2.8 Conceptual Framework .................................................................................................. 76
CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................................ 78
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY AREA.............................................................................. 78
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 78
3.2  Emergence and growth of residential segregation in Nairobi .......................................... 80
3.3  Study Area..................................................................................................................... 81
3.4 Climate and weather ....................................................................................................... 84
3.5 Zoning policies ............................................................................................................... 85
3.5.1 Planning policy......................................................................................................... 85
CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................................................ 90
EXTENT AND NATURE OF DENSIFICATION.................................................................... 90
4.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 90
4.1 Extent of Housing Densification ..................................................................................... 90
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi xi
4.1.1 Gender...................................................................................................................... 94
4.1.2 Age........................................................................................................................... 94
4.1.3 Marital status ............................................................................................................ 95
4.1.4 Level of education .................................................................................................... 95
4.1.5 Number of children according to their age ................................................................ 96
4.1.6 Duration of living in Kileleshwa ............................................................................... 96
4.1.7 Previous place of residence ....................................................................................... 97
4.1.8 Reasons for staying in Kileleshwa............................................................................. 97
4.1.9 Occupation ............................................................................................................... 98
4.1.10 Monthly Income ..................................................................................................... 99
4.1.11 Distance to the place of work .................................................................................. 99
4.1.12 Means used to the place of work ........................................................................... 100
4.1.13 Time spent on average to reach to the place of work/business ............................... 100
4.1.14 House ownership status......................................................................................... 101
4.1.15 Monthly rent payable ............................................................................................ 102
4.1.16 Type of house ....................................................................................................... 102
4.1.17 Size of the houses ................................................................................................. 103
4.1.18 Number of storeys of the apartments..................................................................... 103
4.1.19 Sizes of apartments ............................................................................................... 104
4.1.20 Ground coverage and Green cover ........................................................................ 104
4.1.21 Plot Ratio.............................................................................................................. 105
4.2 Nature of housing densification..................................................................................... 105
4.2.1 Vertical densification.............................................................................................. 105
4.2.2 Horizontal densification.......................................................................................... 107
4.2.3 Plots acreage........................................................................................................... 107
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi xii
4.2.4 Reasons behind rapid increase in housing density in Kileleshwa ............................. 108
CHAPTER 5 .......................................................................................................................... 109
IMPACTS OF HOUSING DENSIFICATION........................................................................ 109
5.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 109
5.1 Water............................................................................................................................ 109
5.1.1   Sources of water ................................................................................................... 109
5.1.2 Water shortage........................................................................................................ 110
5.1.3 Sufficiency of water supply..................................................................................... 110
5.1.4 Safeguard against water shortage ............................................................................ 111
5.2 Storm water drainage .................................................................................................... 111
5.3 Transport system........................................................................................................... 113
5.3.1 Traffic congestion ...................................................................................................... 113
5.3.2 State of roads in Kileleshwa.................................................................................... 114
5.3.2 Traffic congestion................................................................................................... 115
5.3.3 Time when traffic congestions are high................................................................... 115
5.3.4 Causes of traffic congestion .................................................................................... 116
5.3.5 Facility to minimize use of private vehicles in the estate ......................................... 116
5.4 Power shortage ............................................................................................................. 117
5.4.1 Type of energy used for domestic purposes............................................................. 117
5.5 Community facilities..................................................................................................... 118
5.5.1 Distance and means to community facilities............................................................ 119
5.5.2 Challenges in accessing the community facilities .................................................... 120
5.6  Land use conflict.......................................................................................................... 120
5.7  Pollution ...................................................................................................................... 121
5.8  Disposal of liquid waste ............................................................................................... 122
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi xiii
5.8.1 Blockage of sewerage system.................................................................................. 122
5.9 Reduced ecological value of land .................................................................................. 123
5.10 Solid Waste................................................................................................................. 123
5.10.1 Disposal of Solid Waste........................................................................................ 123
5.10.2  Efficiency of the waste collection services ........................................................... 124
5.11 Security ................................................................................................................ 124
5.11.1 Security Problem .................................................................................................. 124
5.12 Livability .............................................................................................................. 125
5.12.1 Facilities to enhance accessibility and safety......................................................... 126
CHAPTER 6 .......................................................................................................................... 127
ROLE OF GREEN DESIGNS AND STRATEGIES IN SUSTAINABLE DENSIFICATION 127
6.0 Green designs and strategies in development projects ................................................... 127
6.1 Key objectives .............................................................................................................. 127
6.1.1 Energy efficiency.................................................................................................... 127
6.1.2 Sustainable water management ............................................................................... 129
6.1.3 Protection of green spaces....................................................................................... 129
6.1.4 Green infrastructure ................................................................................................ 130
6.1.5 Green construction materials................................................................................... 130
6.1.6 Waste management ................................................................................................. 131
6.2 Role of NEMA and Nairobi City Council in development............................................. 131
6.2.1 Efficiency in achieving organizational goals ........................................................... 132
6.2.2 Enforcement of the environmental guidelines and regulations in Kileleshwa........... 132
6.4 Satisfaction with the current housing development..................................................... 132
CHAPTER 7 .......................................................................................................................... 134
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS............................................. 134
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi xiv
7.1 Synthesis ...................................................................................................................... 134
7.3 Conclusion of the study................................................................................................. 136
7.4 Recommendations of the study ..................................................................................... 137
7.4.1 Density regulation................................................................................................... 137
7.4.2   Green spaces......................................................................................................... 137
7.4.2 Infrastructure upgrading.......................................................................................... 138
7.4.3 Green infrastructure ................................................................................................ 138
7.4.4 Efficiency in water use............................................................................................ 138
7.4.5 Efficiency in energy use.......................................................................................... 138
7.4. 6 Transport system.................................................................................................... 138
7.4. 7 Waste management ................................................................................................ 139
7.4. 8 Storm water control ............................................................................................... 139
7.4.9 Land use conflict .................................................................................................... 139
7.5 Recommendations for further studies ............................................................................ 142
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................... 143
APPENDIX I.......................................................................................................................... 148
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi xv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Sampling Design 9
Figure 2.1 Problems and opportunities in Compact City 16
Figure 2.2 Increasing urban green space by greening roads 37
Figure 2.3 Increased green space through roof gardens and ecoroof 38
Figure 2.4 Sustainable designs and natural organism 41
Figure 2.5 Surface temperatures on different surfaces 46
Figure 2.6 Atrium 47
Figure 2.7 Permeable paved surfaces 50
Figure 2.8 Concentric growth model 56
Figure 2.9 Sector model 58
Figure 2.10 Multiple nuclei model 59
Figure 2.11 Generic considerations for densification 66
Figure 2.12 Examples of densities in Cape Town and other cities 67
Figure 2.13 Density management in Sao Paulo, Brazil 68
Figure 2.14 Conceptual Framework 76
Figure 4.1 Gender of the respondents 94
Figure 4.2 Marital status of the respondents 95
Figure 4.3 Number of children according to age 96
Figure 4.4 Occupation 98
Figure 4.5 Distance to place of work 99
Figure 4.6 Means used to place of work 100
Figure 4.7 Time spent to reach place of work/business 101
Figure 4.8 House ownership status 101
Figure 5.1 Source of water 109
Figure 5.2 Sufficiency of water supply 110
Figure 5.3 State of roads in Kileleshwa 114
Figure 5.4 Blockage of sewerage system 122
Figure 5.5 Disposal of solid waste 123
Figure 5.6 Security Problem 124
Figure 7.1 Proposed Interventions 147
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi xvi
LIST OF MAPS
Map  3.1  Map of Kenya showing location of Nairobi............................................................... 81
Map 3 2  Map of Nairobi ......................................................................................................... 82
Map 3.3 Map showing study area ........................................................................................... 83
Map  4.1  Subdivision of L.R. 209/ 14990/31......................................................................... 107
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi xvii
LIST OF PLATES
Plate 3.1 Upcoming apartments within study area 82
Plate 4.1 Upcoming apartments in the study area 90
Plate 4.2 Section of the study area in March 2002 92
Plate 4.3 Section of the study area in February 2012 93
Plate 4.4 Redevelopment from single dwelling units to multi 
 dwelling apartments 105
Plate 5.1 Paved surface for parking and play 112
Plate 5.2 Encroachment on Kirichwa Kubwa riparian reserve 112
Plate 5.3 Boundary wall destroyed by flooded Kirichwa Ndogo river 113
Plate 5.4 Traffic on the newly constructed link road 114
Plate 5.5 Kasuku Shopping Centre 118
Plate 5.6 School adjacent to an apartment block 121
Plate 5.7 Polluted river basin 121
Plate 5.8 Apartments in the study area 123
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi xviii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Data needs matrix 9
Table 2.1 Measures of density 18
Table 2.2 Sustainable communities 21
Table 2.3 Basic criteria for assessing green materials 27
Table 2.4 Subsets of green space and grey space 31
Table 2.5 Functions of green infrastructure 35
Table 2.6 Environmental assessment of tall buildings 42
Table 2.7 Sustainable design guidelines 52
Table 2.8 Factors affecting densification and their implications 54
Table 3.1 Population of Nairobi between 1906-1999 79
Table 3.2 Population distribution by sex, number of households,
 area, density and constituencies 84
Table 3.4 Zone 4 planning policy 86
Table 3.5 Proposed zone 4 spatial policy framework as per 2011 study 87
Table 4.2 Age of the respondents 94
Table 4.3 Level of education 95
Table 4.4  Duration of living in Kileleshwa 97
Table 4.5 Reasons for staying in Kileleshwa 97
Table 4.6 Monthly Income 99
Table 4.7 Type of house 102
Table 4.8 Redevelopment of L.R.No. 209/6491 106
Table 5.1 Water shortage 110
Table 5.3 Traffic congestion 115
Table 5.4 Time when traffic congestion is high 115
Table 5.5 Causes of traffic congestion 116
Table 5.6 Facility to minimize use of private vehicles 116
Table  5.7 Type of energy used for domestic purposes 117
Table 5.8  Distance and means to community facilities 119
Table 6.1 How green strategies are addressed in development projects 128
Table 7.1 Proposed Sustainable Housing Densification strategies 140
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi xix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
GOK Government of Kenya
NCC Nairobi City Council
WCED World Commission on Environment and Development
RCMRD Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Development
CBD Central Business District
DTRCTDS Draft Technical Report on Cape Town Densification Strategy
NEMA National Environment Management Authority
KARA Kenya Alliance of Residents Associations
NMT Non Motorized Transport
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 1
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
The world is rapidly urbanizing. Currently over 50% of humanity now lives in urban areas. In 
Kenya, urbanization rate is estimated at 3.9% according to Kenya Vision 2030. It is further 
estimated that by 2030, about 63% of Kenya’s population will be living in urban areas. Nairobi 
city has a population of 3,138,369 people according to 2009 Housing and Population Census 
from an estimate of 300,000 in 1963. The entire Nairobi Metropolitan Region alone is projected 
to have a population of over 15 million by 2030 (GOK, 2007).
The magnitude of this urban growth in Kenya requires innovative approach to planning and 
urban management. Kenya has so far been unable to plan adequately in order to accommodate 
her increasing urban population. One of the challenges the country faces in this regard is that the 
rate of urbanization has been much faster than the rate at which affordable quality housing has 
been provided (GOK, 2007). It is estimated that out of a total 150,000 housing units required 
annually in urban areas, only an estimated 35,000 are produced according to vision 2030( GOK,
2007).
Every Kenyan has a constitutional right to clean and healthy environment (GOK, 2010). The 
state has a further responsibility to provide accessible and adequate housing to all citizens, and 
consequently the growing population must therefore be adequately housed.
The Nairobi Metropolitan Region currently has no urban redevelopment strategy in place to 
guide regeneration, densification and utilization of inner development potential (GOK, 2008).
What is evident is ad hoc attempts by different agencies to bridge the housing gap through 
unregulated densification of housing estates without proper guidelines and coordination. This 
development challenge calls for planning and policy measures to ensure an urban growth 
strategy that will promote integrated and progressive urban development.
It is therefore important to explore new strategies and further examine practical design options 
and planning solutions to address the challenge of providing adequate housing for the rapidly 
growing urban population. The settlement schemes will need to be stepped up to cope with the 
demand. It is the intention of this study to investigate recent trend in densification of urban 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 2
housing with a view of proposing appropriate strategies and policies for sustainable densification 
in our urban housing.
1.2 Problem Statement
Land is a scarce and valuable resource. Whereas sustainable land use is a key aspect of vision 
2030, a comprehensive land use planning and management policy to regulate management of this 
scarce resource has been lacking. The resultant developments in terms of uncontrolled 
developments, inadequate infrastructure, traffic congestions, and polluted environments are 
among the clear indicators of the deficiencies of our development control and planning 
frameworks to guide urban development in tandem with rate of urbanization
In an attempt to accommodate the growing urban population, a huge number of high density 
residential apartments have sprung up in many residential estates in our cities. Most of these lack 
basic infrastructure services, compromise on safety standards, and lack amenities for basic 
comfort, convenience and welfare of the residents. It is clear that the current densification trend 
is deficient in addressing issues of carrying capacity, optimum land utilization, vulnerability to 
climate change, inclusiveness in urban housing and the undue strain on existing infrastructure 
beyond the allowable loading. Lack of appropriate policy guidelines for densification strategies 
in our cities also compounds the problem.
Sustainable development is a key aspect among the national values and principles of governance 
for all state officers according to the Kenya constitution (GOK, 2010).  It is therefore imperative 
for the planning professionals to analyze the current housing delivery systems with a view of 
identifying and providing practical guidelines for sustainable densification programs in our 
towns and cities.
Kileleshwa has experienced tremendous increase in housing density in the recent past. There is a 
rapid transformation of the area from low density high income land use to high density medium 
income zone. The area falls under Zone 4 according to the Nairobi City Development 
Ordinances and Zones (2006). Several studies have been undertaken in Zones 3, 4 & 5 in the 
recent past. The current development standards are based on 2006 study where walk up 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 3
apartments on Ground Coverage (GC) and Plot Ratio (PR) of 35% and 100% respectively are 
allowed on areas within the sewerage network. The 2011 study was aimed at generating further 
knowledge concerning the urban change processes in the study area and their implications for the 
city planning and sustainable urban development. This study identified a need to rezone the area 
further due to among other factors the increasing pressure on available land and high cost per 
unit area of land which justifies the need for further densification (CCN, 2011).  The draft study 
report therefore proposes enhancement of development standards for the study area to G.C. of 
35% and P.R. of between 100 to 200% (CCN, 2011).  
The rising trend in housing densification in Kileleshwa has several planning implications that 
need to be investigated. The several challenges that were identified during the 2011 Land Use 
Study for the area, which include low infrastructure capacity, missing community, social and 
commercial facilities and traffic congestion are among the indicators that sustainability of the 
densification process need to be investigated. Whereas several studies have been undertaken to 
investigate land use change and the factors contributing to the increasing housing density, there 
exist a gap with regard to analysis of the impacts of increasing density, and the potential 
strategies that can be advanced to enhance sustainability of the ongoing process.  It was the aim
of this study therefore to analyze the impacts of this rapid densification process and further 
investigate strategies to promote sustainable developments within the study area.
1.3 Purpose of the study
Based on the above problem statement, the purpose of the study was to assess the planning 
implications of the emerging housing densification strategies by examining the associated 
impacts and propose intervening policy to guide sustainable densification process in the study 
area.
1.4 Study scope
The study was limited to Kileleshwa sub-location within Westlands constituency in Nairobi. It 
covers an area of about 5.2 Sq. Km with a population of 16,802 according to 2009 population 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 4
census and 4,592 households. This area has witnessed huge transformation in the recent past, 
from single dwelling on half acre plots to multiple user apartments and commercial blocks. 
There are also fragile ecological zones within the study area especially along the Kirichwa river 
basin that require situational study to facilitate strategic intervention. The study then focused on 
the role of green designs and strategies in mitigating negative impacts of densification process 
and the extent to which these can be advanced for sustainable development.
1.5 Research Questions
i) What is the nature and extent of housing densification in Kileleshwa?
ii) What are the physical and ecological impacts of the densification process?
iii) To what extent can green designs and strategies be used to mitigate negative impacts of 
densification process?
iv) What alternative intervening policy can be advanced to guide sustainable densification 
process in Kileleshwa?
1.6 Research Objectives 
The objectives of the study were:
i) To determine the extent and nature of the housing densification in Kileleshwa;
ii) To examine the physical and ecological impacts of the densification process;
iii) To investigate the extent to which green designs and strategies can be used to mitigate
negative impacts of densification process;
iv) To develop an alternative intervening policy which can be advanced to guide sustainable 
densification process in Kileleshwa?
1.7 Research Hypothesis
Several factors are responsible for the densification process in our urban areas. This study sought 
to examine the related impacts of the process and the extent to which integration of green designs 
and other alternative strategies can be advanced to achieve sustainable housing densification.
The hypothesis can thus be stated: “The current housing densification in Kileleshwa is 
unsustainable and requires alternative low impact strategies”
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 5
1.8 Study Justification
Lack of appropriate policy framework to guide densification programs in our cities will have 
serious negative impacts on our urban environment. Despite attempts by local authorities to halt 
densification in city estates initially zoned as low density, the initial single family homes are 
already being illegally transformed into apartment blocks as witnessed in areas like Kileleshwa, 
Kilimani, Upper hill, Westlands and Spring Valley. Unfortunately, the implication of this is that 
the quality and quantity of services per capita have continued to decline rapidly. Water and 
drainage services are insufficient; traffic snarl ups are common due to inadequate carriageways; 
and most importantly loss of valuable urban green space without adequate replacement. If this 
situation persists, our urban system will become uninhabitable. For instance, it is estimated that 
traffic jams resulting in loss of man-hours, fuel and pollution costs our national economy Ksh 37 
billion annually. The cost of living in overly congested environments is also heavy and further 
violates the constitutional right of citizens to a clean and healthy environment (GoK, 2010).
While densification is unarguably a more efficient use of scarce urban space, ad hoc and
unplanned densification efforts will not only destroy sensitive neighbourhoods but also damage 
our business environment and overall quality of life. Previous studies have highlighted the 
development challenges that are attributed to the general area within Zone 3, 4 and 5. As attested 
by Munene (2005) in a study on Environmental Quality in Kileleshwa, there are numerous 
environmental problems associated with the current developments in the study area that requires 
further scrutiny to ensure sustainability. In proposing areas for further study, Munene (2005) 
stresses the need for further research on environment-development relationships and the need to 
come up with development requirements and specifications that do not compromise 
environmental quality. This calls for solution based approach rather than just diagnostic and 
descriptive strategies.
This study therefore sought to compliment these studies by undertaking a more detailed analysis 
of the developments at a micro level of site and plot model to assess the sustainability of the 
underlying structure. Examination of living environment of the residents was to generate 
important knowledge concerning development performance as well as user perspective of the 
densification process. The critical role of green densification strategies in promoting 
environmental quality was also examined and ultimately the aim was to develop an alternative 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 6
policy and framework that will promote densification in Kileleshwa and other neighbourhoods in 
sustainable manner. 
The study was therefore academically, socially and economically significant in that it amongst 
other things:
i) Shed light on the nature of the ongoing housing densification in Kileleshwa,
ii) Help in understanding the impacts of the increased housing density, and also
iii) Enrich policy interventions with proposed strategies to guide the housing densification 
programmes in our rapidly growing urban areas.
1.9 Research Methodology
The research sought to understand the nature and extent of the housing densification process in 
Kileleshwa. This involved tracing the historical and current housing trend in the study area 
derived through literature review and collection of primary data. Review of past studies and 
existing research work on densification and land use process in the study area as well as review 
of the existing policy guidelines and legal framework was further undertaken to help understand 
the historical development and land use change processes in the area.  The research further 
sought to identify how the increasing housing densification has impacted on the physical and 
ecological environment. 
1.9.1 Research design
The purpose of the research design was to ensure that the evidence obtained effectively addresses 
the research problem and accurately describes the existing phenomenon. This study adopted a 
descriptive design to obtain information pertaining to the extent and nature of housing 
densification in Kileleshwa. The variables in this situation were population, number of 
households, and housing developments. Units of analysis were households and random parcels of 
land identified within the study area. Exploratory design approach was also applied to provide 
insight into the implications of the housing densification and help establish how green designs 
and strategies can be used to mitigate negative impacts of housing densification process.
The first stage involved carrying out a thorough literature review of the past studies on housing 
densification and the associated impacts of the development. The literature review helped the 
researcher to understand the study problem more clearly. The second step involved carrying out 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 7
reconnaissance survey to have good background knowledge of the study area, map the physical 
extent of the study and assist in establishing the sample design. The questionnaires were later 
administered with a view to collecting desired data and lastly data analysis was done for data 
collected from the field and literature review.
1.9.2 Source of data and data collection method
i) Secondary data: Saunders, Philip and Adrian, (2000) noted that secondary data is data, which 
already has been collected by someone else for another purpose. The research obtained data 
from text books, existing plans, journal, magazine, newspapers and internet from related 
literature.
ii) Primary data was gathered directly mainly through direct observation of the study area. Two 
main techniques for gathering primary data were used, that is inquiries and interviews.  The 
research instruments used in collecting data were questionnaire, direct observation and 
interview schedule. In this study, the questions are structural and open ended. The 
questionnaire contains only relevant information for the study. Data gathered was recorded 
using field notebook, photography using digital camera and mapping. Features such as 
development impacts on environment and infrastructure, land use conflicts and other coping 
strategies in the study area were captured using direct observation. Relevant site survey and 
measurements was also carried out as well.
a. Questionnaires were administered to a sample of respondents to generate data on 
user’s views on the densification challenges, their impacts, infrastructure conditions 
and their adequacy. The study area has 4,592 households. Assuming a confidence 
level of 95% and 10.25% as margin of error, a sample size of 90 households was 
determined using a sample size calculator. Questionnaires were administered to the 
sample households. 
b. Focus group discussions; these were held with local residents, professionals, business 
people, small scale traders and other stakeholders within the study area.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 8
c. Conducting interviews for key informants; these include key informants like Nairobi 
City Council technical officers, City Forward Planning, Planners, Architects and 
Environmental Impact Assessment Experts etc.
Reconnaissance survey was done prior to actual field survey in order to get general background 
knowledge that informed the design of research instruments. The research questionnaires and 
other tools were designed in such a way as to gather detailed information on the dynamics of the 
densification process, their impacts as well as proposals on how to control and develop a 
framework for sustainable densification process in the study area. 
The data from the questionnaires was analyzed using statistical data analysis software, SPSS 
from where conclusions and recommendations were derived based on the study findings. Policy 
proposals for sustainable housing densification were also formulated in line with the 
recommendations.
1.9.3 Sampling design
In order to select sample strata for this research, the research used judgmental sampling as well 
as systematic sampling. Judgmental sampling basically means that the researcher selects cases 
best suited to answer the research questions (Saunders, Philip and Adrian, 2000). Systematic 
random sampling method was used to identify the sample household for the survey. This entails 
using base map for the area and randomly picking the starting point from where the subsequent 
sample units are determined by applying the sample interval.
For head of departments, the study employed key informant interview with those available 
through purposive sampling. In this approach those who are deemed to possess characteristics 
wanted or are in position to offer the required information were interviewed. While picking the 
household respondent, the research applied convenience sampling/ grab sampling. This is due to 
factors such as availability and willingness of respondent.
Out of the 90 questionnaires administered, 74 were filled and returned by the respondents, while 
16 questionnaires were dropped or sent by email to identified residents who failed to respond.  
32 plots were also randomly sampled for analysis from a list obtained from Nairobi City Council.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 9
Figure 1.1 Sampling Design
Target population Population Sample
Households Approx.4592 90
Developers/  per plot - Approx.420  
plots
32
Resident Association ( KARA) 1 
Policy Institutions- Nairobi City Council 
(County) 
1 
 Ministry of Housing 1 
    Dept of Physical  
 Planning 
1 
 Provincial Admin.  
(Chief/Asst) 
1
 NEMA 1
Architects/ EIA-Lead experts/ 5
Source: Author, 2013
1.9.4 Data Analysis and Data Presentation
This involved collation of collected information and verifying facts mentioned in the literature 
review. Analysis involved the use of techniques such as SPSS (Statistical Package for Social 
Sciences), use of various types of charts, use of tables, and making of maps, etc. The analysis of 
both the qualitative and quantitative data collected resulted to formation of simple frequency 
distribution and analytical table. All the gathered information was analyzed and presented using 
simple tables, scanned sketches, pie charts, bar graphs, maps photographs.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 10
1.9.5 Data needs matrix
Table 1.1 Data needs matrix
Objective Data needs Expected results
A. Determine the extent and 
nature of housing 
densification in Kileleshwa
· Population data
· Households data
· Change in land use and subdivision
· Development trends through local 
authority data on approved 
developments and actual 
developments
· Assess the population 
trends
· Assess household growth 
trends
· Examine the extent of land 
subdivision, and increase 
in number of dwelling 
units per hectare
· Assess the extent of 
vertical increase in 
development heights
B. Examine the physical and 
ecological impacts of the 
densification process
· Physical impacts?
a) How has densification 
influenced transport system?
b) How has densification affected 
capacity of existing infrastructure 
(Water, power, sewer)?
c) How has densification affected 
liveability in regard to:
i. Thermal comfort / 
ventilation
ii. Natural lighting
iii. Congestion/ crowding
iv. Safety/ security
v. Privacy
· Analyze traffic volume 
over 20 year period.
· Find out adequacy of 
infrastructure services.
· Carry out built 
environment analysis to 
examine:
i. Thermal comfort / 
ventilation
ii. Natural lighting
iii. Levels of crowding
iv. Human safety/security
v. Privacy 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 11
Objective Data needs Expected results
· Environmental impacts?
a) How has densification affected 
green open space?
b) How has densification affected 
the following:
i. Increased local temperature
ii. Use of energy
iii. Water resources
iv. Surface water run-off
v. Levels of indoor/ outdoor air 
pollution,
vi. Solid waste management
· Find out the effect of 
densification on open 
spaces
· Examine to what extent, 
densification has 
influenced these 
environmental factors
C. To investigate the extent to 
which green designs and 
strategies can be used to 
mitigate negative impacts of 
densification process;
· To what extent have the following 
green strategies been employed?
i. Protection of green space
ii. Protection of riparian areas
iii. Efficiency in energy use 
iv. Efficiency in water use 
v. Use of green roofs/ walls
vi. Reduction in impervious 
paving areas 
· Assess the use of these 
strategies in Kileleshwa
D. Develop and Intervening 
policy which can be advanced 
to guide sustainable 
densification process in 
Kileleshwa
· What are the existing zoning policies 
and regulations?
· What the views of the residents on 
current planning issues in the area
· Assess the effectiveness of 
the existing policies by 
reviewing outcomes.
· Find out the level of 
awareness of the planning 
issues in the area,
· Come up with alternative 
policy measures to guide 
growth and densification in 
the study area
Source: Author, 2012
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 12
1.10 Study Assumptions
The study proceeded on several assumptions:
i. That the current urbanization rate will persist for a long time and the projected demand 
for urban housing will continue to rise;
ii. That the study area represents housing densification programs in our urban areas 
reasonably well; and
iii. That the county governments have the technical capacity and political good will to adopt
and implement the study proposals.
1.11 Definition of Key Terms and Concepts
1.11.1 Development
According to the Physical Planning Act (Cap 286), development means the making of any 
material change in the use or density of any buildings or land or the subdivision of any land 
which for the purpose of this Act is classified as Class “A” development; and, the erection of 
such buildings or works and the carrying out of such building operations, as the Minister may 
from time to time determine, which for the purposes of this Act is classified as Class “B” 
development( GOK, 1996).
1.11.2 Density
The maximum amount of development permitted or the maximum number of persons permitted 
to reside on any area of land expressed in dwelling units per hectare or persons per hectare
(GOK, 1996).
1.11.3 Housing Densification
Housing densification means increasing the number of units of housing per square foot of land, 
either through building on vacant land or allowing taller and larger structures.
1.11.4 Indeliberate densification
Housing densification programs done without special planning or deliberation and mainly driven 
by economical objectives of profit maximization for developers and property owners.  
1.11.5 Gross dwelling units per hectare (Gross du/ha)
The number of dwelling units per hectare of land calculated in a designated area on the basis of 
land used for residential purposes and other land uses such as industry, commerce, education, 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 13
transport and parks. Excluded are land-extensive land uses such as agricultural land and nature 
areas/reserves/parks (CTDSTR, 2009).
1.11.6 Net dwelling units per hectare (net du/ha) 
The number of dwelling units per hectare of land calculated on the basis of land used for 
residential purposes including the garden and off-street parking, if any (CTDSTR, 2009).
1.11.7 Sustainable Development
Development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of 
future generations to meet their own needs.
1.11.8 Sustainability
This is defined as the long-term maintenance of responsibility, which has environmental, 
economic, and social dimensions, and encompasses the concept of stewardship, the responsible 
management of resource use.
1.11.9 Carrying Capacity
Carrying capacity is defined as the number of individuals who can be supported in a given area 
within natural resource limits, and without degrading the natural social, cultural and economic 
environment for present and future generations.
1.11.10 Green building
A green building is a structure that is designed, built, renovated, operated, or reused in an 
ecological and resource-efficient manner. Green buildings are designed to meet certain 
objectives such as protecting occupant health; improving employee productivity; using energy, 
water, and other resources more efficiently; and reducing the overall impact to the environment.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 14
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Case for Densification
As noted by Niemela et al, (2011) densification and compaction of urban areas has been 
suggested as a strategy to avoid or reduce urban sprawl. This therefore means that available land 
within urban areas is built on, rather than farmland or natural areas of urban fridge. Pauleit et al
(2005) however highlighted that opportunities for densification which include: redevelopment of 
former industrial areas which have fallen into dereliction, infill development where other houses
are built on low density residential areas, and inner urban open spaces, are built over with 
negative consequences for ecosystem process (Paule it et al, 2005) The amount and character of 
green surfaces determine ecosystem processes such as climatic energy balance, storm water 
runoff, carbon storage and biodiversity (Niemela et al, 2011). He further notes that while urban 
compaction seems desirable in order to reduce consumption of land as well as energy 
consumption and green house gas emission, it may compromise the ecological quality in the city 
and its adaptive capacity to climate change. 
Inman (2009) on his part views densification as an organic part of how old cities which cannot 
expand horizontally have always grown. He goes on to say that while densification does affect 
views and open space, it also results in more people on the streets (hence usually a safer 
environment) more amenities, more choices, and higher property values. In addition 
densification produces a larger municipal tax base. While linking density with urban safety,
Inman (2009) notes that city parks and shopping streets for example depend on the presence of 
large number of people. A desert park, un inhabited street are not only unattractive, but they even 
appear threatening and dangerous. He concludes by emphasizing that sufficient public amenities 
must be put in place from the beginning in order to attract buyers and tenants. According to 
Toderian (2008), by strategically increasing the number of dwelling units per acre, cities not only 
will go a long way toward meeting their sustainability objectives, but also will be competitive, 
resilient, and great places to live.  
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 15
2.1.1 Key elements of compact city
As Acioly (2000) found out, a thorough analysis of intra-urban potential for growth and urban 
intensification provides a sound basis for pursuing the maximization of available land, 
infrastructure and public services, enhancing housing opportunities and local economic 
development. The final result is cities that tackle urban equity issues and which contain the key 
elements of a compact city-social and economic diversity, urbanity, vitality, high densities and 
mixed land use. However, he further argues that these densification strategies place the question 
of sustainable urban development at the forefront, but they do not provide evidence that they will 
be sufficient in themselves for reversing the trend of peripheral development and urban 
expansion towards the greenfield sites. 
Acioly (2000) further notes that the active role of municipalities in guiding urban development 
processes paves way for sustainable urban management practices. Potentially there is an 
institutional, organizational and political environment conducive to policies that are socially 
equitable, economically efficient and environmentally sustainable. This may sustain compact city 
policies and assure their social acceptability whilst simultaneously creating mechanisms to 
manage and mitigate their adverse effects (Acioly, 2000).  He further observes that in absence of 
good local governance, the environmental impacts from extremely dense urban environments- air 
pollution, noise, traffic congestion, health risks and lack of open public space- are exacerbated 
and constitute a clear threat to sustainable urban development. Indeed, the municipalities are 
currently incapable of playing their role because they lack capacity and autonomy.
The problem with low density land use pattern is not just high energy use, but a set of 
environmental and social problems according to Acioly (2000):
· High per capita auto emissions (eg. smog, greenhouse gases),
· High per capita water use ( eg. for lawn irrigation),
· High land requirement in both block size and the road system required to service it,
· High storm water pollution from extra urbanized land,
· High domestic heating/cooling energy due to lack of shared insulating effect when 
buildings are grouped together,
· Poor recycling rates due to the large costs involved in collection,
· High physical infrastructure costs( utilities, pipes, poles, roads etc),
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 16
· High social infrastructure costs (since cars are required for participation in social life)
Figure 2.1 Problems and opportunities in Compact City
Source: Based on Acioly and Davidson 1996
· Potential for social interaction
· Optimal use of land resources
· Easy access to basic services and petty 
commerce
· Economies of scale
· Easy access to consumers
· Urban vitality and diversity
· Efficiency in infrastructure supply
· Efficiency in public transport
· High revenue generation
· Good access to employment
· Congestion and overload of infrastructure
· Crowded public transport
· Air and noise pollution
· Crowding
· Lack of amenities and open space
· Lack of space for onsite sanitation solutions
· High level of crime
· Environmental hazards
· Less Congestion
· Less pollution ( Air, noise)
· More space for amenities
· Low cost infrastructure options 
possible
· Higher costs of  infrastructure provision
· Less attractive living environment
· Social fragmentation
· High cost of public transport
· Higher risks in physical integrity/ high use of 
land
LOW DENSITY
COMPACT CITY
Problems and Opportunities in Compact City Environments
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 17
Newman and Kenworthy, (1999) in exploring the impacts of high cost social infrastructure notes 
that when cars are required for participation in social life, the marginalized and excluded are 
largely the children, senior citizens, physically challenged and poor especially women. At the 
same time, it is apparent that if densification is not accompanied by an efficient transit and public 
transport management system, one can expect the exacerbation of congestion, the deterioration 
of quality of life and decreasing air quality.
2.1.2 Intelligent densification
The foregoing scenarios certainly call for an intelligent densification strategy. Acioly (2000) is of 
the view that proper management and accurate knowledge of the built environment are essential 
conditions for pursuing densification policies. Niemela et al,( 2011) further points out  that while 
urban compaction seems desirable in order to reduce consumption of land as well as energy 
consumption and green house gas emission, it may compromise the ecological quality in the city 
and its adaptive capacity to climate change especially if it is not well managed. Acioly, (2000) 
therefore note there should be mechanisms to manage and mitigate adverse effects that come 
with high density. He proposes “intelligent densification” policies that help the city to save 
energy, ease congestion, maximize population mobility and promote private sector participation 
in urban development. Rohracher (2004) further stated that intelligent planning should allow 
prospective house owners to adapt the building design to their wishes, allow sufficient 
availability of densified areas with low traffic, safe playground for children and still help stop 
people moving into the countryside around cities.
City of Tshwane (2005) in the report on the Tshwane compaction and densification strategy, 
2005 states that densification and compaction is not an end in itself, but a means to achieve an 
overall efficient, integrated and sustainable metropolitan area. According to City of Tshwane 
(2005) the strategy should achieve a range of other goals which include: smart growth strategy 
that reduces sprawl and promotes growth that is balanced and fiscally, environmentally and 
socially responsible; and design guidelines for higher density housing.  Design aspects of 
development should be given more considerations during development applications for higher 
density developments since through appropriate design and integration high densities could be 
much more desirable developments than lower densities without appropriate designs.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 18
Funding the development and upgrading of the engineering infrastructure services as a 
consequence of the compaction and densification drive should be carefully considered and the 
extent to which the developers are kept responsible for these costs. From the environmental 
perspective, mitigation measures for negative impacts such as increase noise levels, increased 
pollution for example on water resources, alteration to the historic and cultural fabrics of 
residents and deterioration of urban green space should be well articulated. The report further 
notes other strategies like promotion of green building design, creation of more opportunities for 
public and non-motorized transport systems as well as engagement of meaningful public 
participation process as vital components in building success of urban densification programmes.
Table 2.1 Measures of density
Measure Definition
Dwelling unit density Number of dwelling units per hectare (du/ha)
Population density Number of people per hectare (usually calculated by 
multiplying the number of units by an appropriate average 
household size).
Building density Ratio of total floor area of buildings to the corresponding 
site (PR).
Gross du/ha The number of dwelling units per hectare of land calculated 
in a designated area on the basis of land used for residential 
purposes and other land uses such as industry, commerce, 
education, transport and parks. Excluded are land-extensive 
land uses such as agricultural land and nature 
areas/reserves/parks.
Nett du/ha The number of dwelling units per hectare of land calculated 
on the basis of land used for residential purposes including 
the garden and off-street parking, if any.
Gross base density The average number of dwelling units per hectare across 
large city district areas or the City as a whole, excluding 
land-extensive uses such as agricultural and rural land and 
large nature areas/reserves/parks.
Source: Cape Town Densification Strategy Technical Report
As Goncalves  & Umakoshi (2010) noted in the book “ The Environmental Performance of Tall 
Buildings’, the  main arguments in favour of tall buildings around the world are population 
pressure on land, synergies that arise from the socio-economic relationship between proximity 
and density, and the efficiency of urban infrastructures servicing higher densities. On the other 
hand arguments against tall building are related to high energy consumption in building 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 19
operation, the risk of overloading the existing urban infrastructure, impact on the historical urban 
fabric and adverse impacts on the quality of the built environment and the dynamics of urban 
life.
2.2 Sustainable Development
Brundtland commission (1987) cited in Njuguna (2007) defines Sustainable development as
“Development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability 
of future generations to meet their own needs” Glaeser (1984) further state that Sustainable 
development requires the following key factors:
· Harmonization of consumption patterns and time use lifestyles,
· Appropriate technologies using ecologically compatible designs,
· Low energy use with emphasis on enhancing renewable energy sources,
· Fresh look at the way we use environmental resources with a view to preserve the same 
or recycle those that are recyclable,
· Ecological principles to guide land use and settlement patterns,
· Participatory planning and grass root activation,
· Deliberate actions towards preserving and improving the physical environment for the 
benefit of man and the environment itself.
Njuguna (2007) further notes that sustainable development requires the recognition that most 
contemporary development processes have proved harmful to the environment and therefore are 
unsustainable. Sustainable development aims at raising the standards of living of a cross section 
of the society without disrupting their culture or the environment (Njuguna, 2007). It also aims at 
ensuring the satisfaction of their needs, a fair distribution of wealth and the prevention of 
exploitative business practices.
There is a very strong link between urban density and sustainability of the urban settlements. As 
Acioly and Forbes, (1996) argue “Resources need to be utilised efficiently. The use and 
occupation of available space and vacant land should be rationalised. Public utilities must be 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 20
efficiently managed .Municipal services must be financially sustainable and housing projects 
must fit into available land and be economically and environmentally sound” . Further to that, as 
Njuguna (2007) points out, where density of a city is below 500,000 inhabitants, the more the 
city grows sustainably. As that figure rises above 2 million inhabitants, the quality of urban life 
deteriorates, with dwindling job opportunities, adding to social, economic, political and other 
pressures (Njuguna, 2007). It is believed that low densities of below 30 inhabitants per hectare 
decrease the possibilities of human interaction. Inhabitants also lose a great deal on psycho-
social stimulation. At the same time excessive densities of above 300 inhabitants per hectare 
mean greater overcrowding, speedier deterioration of the quality of life and excessive psycho-
social stress, all of which are favourable conditions for insecurity, transmission of communicable 
diseases and soon. 
Acioly and Forbes (1996) while analyzing the relationship between density and infrastructure 
cost argued that per capita costs of infrastructure decreases spectacularly when the population 
density is increased from 50-200 inhabitants/ ha. From 200-300 inhabitants/ ha per capita costs 
decrease but not significantly and tend to remain at the lowest values for 300-600 inhabitants/ ha.
2.2.1 Sustainable city
Toderian (2008) argues that strategic densification plays a critical role in improving the health of 
the planet by enhancing several pillars that support a sustainable city. He identified pillars of 
sustainable city as: a complete walkable community; low impact transportation; green buildings; 
flexible open space; green infrastructure; healthy food system; community facilities and
programs;  and economic development. These are discussed further in detail.  Barnes (2002) 
further noted that sustainable communities need to be active, inclusive and safe; well run and 
environmentally sensitive; as well as being well designed and built.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 21
Table 2.2 Sustainable communities
Sustainable communities: Home for all
Active, inclusive and safe Fair , tolerant, and cohesive with a strong local culture and other shared 
community activities
Well run With effective and inclusive participation, representation and leadership
Environmentally sensitive Providing places to live that are sensitive to the environment
Well designed and built Featuring a quality and natural environment
Well connected With good transport services and communications linking people to jobs, 
schools, health and other services
Thriving With a flourishing and diverse local economy
Well served With public, private, community and voluntary services that are appropriate to 
people’s needs and accessible to all
Fair for everyone Including those in other communities, now and in the future
Source: adapted from Barness
2.2.2 Walkable and well connected community 
A sustainable community needs to be structured into complete, well-connected, mixed-use 
neighborhoods that allow residents to work, live, play, shop, and learn within a convenient 
walking or transit distance. While communities should be fashioned so that key natural features 
are protected, these should not be at the expense of many connections within neighborhoods to 
facilitate short trips between uses. A diverse mix of housing reflecting a range of incomes, 
family sizes, and ages should exist. Commercial areas should offer office, retail, and commercial 
space, in addition to residential and community amenities.
Density that is well designed and assembled makes transit and retail more viable, supports more 
schools and services close to homes, and supports the clustering of development so as to better 
preserve natural areas. Higher densities make walkability possible, and great design makes it 
enjoyable.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 22
2.2.3 A Low-impact transportation System 
A sustainable community should provide as many alternatives to the automobile as possible, 
including planning for convenient transit service, and supporting shared-car opportunities to 
reduce the need for single-person auto use. Parking strategies should gradually reduce car use 
and ownership, and parking design should minimize landscape disruption. 
A sustainable community should also prioritize pedestrian and cyclist modes of mobility by 
linking all areas with a fine-grained network of paths, and by designing local streets to support 
all ways of getting around, rather than emphasizing vehicular needs. Streets should also address 
other environmental and social objectives such as storm water management, trees and bird 
habitat, urban agriculture, and playground areas.
Research has shown density to be critical in shifting transportation away from the automobile to 
other modes of travel. With 30 to 60 percent of climate-changing emissions coming from 
transportation, this is critical. Highly convenient rapid transit requires even more units per acre to 
be viable.
2.2.4 Green buildings 
Most permanent buildings stand for 50 to 100 years, often with relatively few modifications, and 
their design significantly influences the impact their occupants have on the planet as they go 
about their daily lives. A sustainable community should be filled with green structures, which are 
typically promoted through green design regulations or guidelines or through green building 
rating systems. Examples of green building rating systems include: The Building Research 
Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM), which is UK based, Leadership in Energy and 
Environmental Design (LEED) system from U.S.A. and Green Globes, a Canada based tool.
Density necessarily requires a high percentage of multifamily homes in a neighborhood. 
Multifamily residences can be significantly more energy efficient than single-family homes as 
they share walls and often more efficient building-scale heating or cooling systems. Furthermore, 
multifamily densities are required to make the provision of community services financially 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 23
viable. In other words, some of the best green design and technological approaches are highly 
dependent on mid to higher densities.
Components of green building design
i) Energy efficiency and renewable energy
Energy efficiency 
Energy efficiency in green building is achieved through several strategies. One ways is 
management of energy waste though regular cleaning, maintenance and replacement of obsolete 
and energy inefficient technologies and systems such as air conditions, pumps, heaters, 
computers and other machines. Efficient appliances will make significant savings on the specific 
electricity bill. For example, the savings generated by low energy lamps reduces costs by a factor 
of 4 compared to incandescent lamps. By energy savings, there is another component of 
management of energy waste. By this we mean all economically interesting actions undertaken 
to reduce energy consumption, by for instance installing suitable equipment in electrical 
installations. The aim is also to consume energy in an optimal manner (e.g. recuperate heat lost 
in combustion gases or produce energy from waste). We should be aware that energy savings do 
not concern just electricity. Adopting some simple daily habits along with a judicious choice of 
equipment also enables us to control consumption of all other forms of energy (gas, heating fuel, 
etc.). In a green building, the main priority is to identify energy savings.
Some of the main measures that enable energy savings are:
•  Good thermal insulation of all exterior components (walls, windows, roof, etc.)
•  Eliminate thermal bridges and other energy leaks
•  Good airtight seal on the exterior building envelope
•  Reduction of thermal losses through ventilation
•  Efficiency of a reduced-inertia boiler
•  Optimised electricity management (reduction of installed power ratings, central management, 
use of lighting control equipment, etc.).
Renewable energy
Solar energy is the source of the water cycle and of wind. The plant kingdom, on which the 
animal kingdom depends, also uses solar energy by transforming it into chemical energy through 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 24
photosynthesis. Apart from nuclear power, geothermal energy and tidal power, solar energy is 
the origin of all other energies on Earth. Solar energy is also inexhaustible on a human timescale 
and hugely abundant. It is estimated that the Earth receives from the sun about 10,000 times the 
total amount of energy consumed by all of humanity. Solar power capture technologies can be 
split into three categories: Solar photovoltaic, solar thermal and solar thermodynamic. The use of 
solar power is of tremendous importance in a green building.
Solar heating systems can be installed in all types of buildings. Using solar power to pre-heat 
outside air before it is allowed to enter a building can considerably reduce heating costs both in 
residential buildings and commercial constructions. Solar heating systems are especially efficient 
for large buildings such as hospitals, hangars, school and gyms, as well as multi-storey 
residential buildings.
The vast majority of solar heating systems require the installation of solar walls. Such equipment 
can be installed on new or existing buildings. Solar walls require very little maintenance, feature 
no liquids or detachable parts other than the ventilators connected to the ventilation system. 
Moreover, solar walls can operate under cloudy conditions and at night time, even if their 
efficiency is much less. The ROI is two years due to the energy savings they produce.
Geothermal power is extracted from the ground for use in air conditioning, heating or 
transformation into electricity. Installing a geothermal heat pump system represents a major 
investment, but it enables users to make use of an inexhaustible source of energy that will 
provide 60 to 70% of the power required to heat or cool a building. Geothermal systems can be 
installed on new houses or renovation projects. This technology can therefore considerably 
reduce the use of fossil fuels or electricity, which emit much more greenhouse gases and which 
are generally less financially interesting in the long term. Geothermal technologies are naturally 
included in green building parameters. Geothermal systems present some major advantages. 
Effectively, underground heat is present everywhere on Earth. Geothermal energy comes from an 
almost continuous source that is not dependent on atmospheric conditions. The ease of extraction 
of this energy depends on the structure of the geological formations or the composition of the 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 25
rock beds. This technology is split into two categories: Deep geothermal or near-surface 
geothermal energy.
Alongside solar energy and geothermal energy, wind power is the third major source of green 
building energy. Today wind power is the least expensive clean energy to produce, which 
explains the strong enthusiasm for this technology. Current research could enable it to keep this 
comfortable head start for several years to come. Water or hydraulic power is mainly produced 
by the displacement or accumulation of fresh water or sea water. As it is everywhere, water plays 
an extremely important role in transporting the Earth’s energy.  
Biomass is generated by photosynthesis, where solar energy is stored by plants in the form of 
carbohydrates, as they use the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. In a wide sense, the expression 
“biomass” refers to all living matter (the total mass of living matter). In terms of energy, biomass 
refers to all organic material that can become a source of energy in the form of biogas, biofuel or 
directly by combustion: Wood or organic agricultural or urban waste, etc. Biomass energy is 
used by the biogas, biofuel and wood industries.
ii) Sustainable water management
The availability of fresh water has become a matter of increasing concern in a context where 
developed and developing countries are engaged in a race to obtain resources that are inexorably 
becoming scarcer. A green building must therefore be designed to use water efficiently. 
Managing waste water, irrigation water and rain water are also essential for a sustainable 
approach. The use of mixer taps reduces water consumption as it is easier to control the 
temperature. Aerator tap fittings reduce the amount of water used without it being noticed during 
use. Waste through negligence is to be avoided. For example tens of millions of cubic metres of 
water are lost every year, because of inadequate seals on taps. Replacing unsuitable equipment 
and using water-efficient devices, communicating and raising user awareness are also potential 
sources for water savings. Rain water is an inexhaustible natural resource which has its place in 
the green building. Rain water is collected as it runs off a roof and is stored in a tank. Whether 
polluted or not, rain water is naturally slightly acidic (pH from 5 to 6), due to its carbon dioxide 
content, present in the atmosphere. This acidity means it should not be stored in plastic or metal 
containers. For domestic use, the ideal solution is a concrete or limestone tank that neutralises 
the natural acidity of rain water. Rain water is only rarely recuperated and often only used for 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 26
watering gardens. Its use should nonetheless be systematic both to unblock waste networks and 
to save on a resource that is becoming scarcer and is weighing on household budgets. A farmer’s 
common sense has always encouraged them to put a container under the gutter pipe to recuperate 
rain water. If optimised, rain water collection can enable homes to be autonomous in water use, 
without it being visible or visually un-aesthetic. In certain buildings, rain water is recuperated, 
treated and reused in applications that do not require potable water. This kind of solution helps 
reduce fresh water needs in the public network, while avoiding the propagation of pollutants by 
run-off. Other solutions are available, such as green roofs, which not only store rain water, but 
also provide a green oasis in an urban environment along with many other benefits.
iii) Green construction materials and components
Green building materials offer variety of benefits to the building owner and occupiers. These 
range from reduced maintenance cost, energy conservation, improved occupant health and 
productivity and greater design flexibility. Building and construction activities worldwide 
consume 3 billion tons of raw materials each year or 40 percent of total global use (Roodman 
and Lenssen, 1995). Using green building materials and products therefore promotes 
conservation of dwindling nonrenewable resources as well as helping reduce the environmental 
impacts associated with the extraction, transport, processing, fabrication, installation, reuse, 
recycling, and disposal of these building industry source materials.
Green building materials are composed of renewable, rather than nonrenewable resources. 
Green materials are environmentally responsible because impacts are considered over the life of 
the product (Spiegel and Meadows, 1999).
According to Froeschle's (1999) the basic criteria for assessing green materials (and construction 
strategies) include: resource efficiency,   indoor air quality, energy efficiency, water conservation 
and affordability
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 27
Table 2.3 Basic criteria for assessing green materials
Criteria Products performance
Resource 
efficiency
· Recycled Content: Products with identifiable recycled content, including 
postindustrial content with a preference for postconsumer content.
· Natural, plentiful or renewable: Materials harvested from sustainably managed 
sources and preferably have an independent certification (e.g., certified wood) 
and are certified by an independent third party.
· Resource efficient manufacturing process: Products manufactured with 
resource-efficient processes including reducing energy consumption, minimizing 
waste (recycled, recyclable and or source reduced product packaging), and 
reducing greenhouse gases.
· Locally available: Building materials, components, and systems found locally or 
regionally saving energy and resources in transportation to the project site.
· Salvaged, refurbished, or remanufactured: Includes saving a material from 
disposal and renovating, repairing, restoring, or generally improving the 
appearance, performance, quality, functionality, or value of a product.
· Reusable or recyclable: Select materials that can be easily dismantled and 
reused or recycled at the end of their useful life. For example, using inert 
demolition materials as a base course for a parking lot.
· Recycled or recyclable product packaging: Products enclosed in recycled 
content or recyclable packaging.
· Durable: Materials that are longer lasting or are comparable to conventional 
products with long life expectancies.
· Use dimensional planning and other material efficiency strategies. These 
strategies reduce the amount of building materials needed and cut construction 
costs. For example, design rooms on 4-foot multiples to conform to standard-
sized wallboard and plywood sheets.
· Require plans for managing materials through deconstruction, demolition, and 
construction.
· Design with adequate space to facilitate recycling collection and to incorporate a 
solid waste management program that prevents waste generation.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 28
Criteria Products performance
Indoor air 
quality
· Low or non-toxic: Materials that emit few or no carcinogens, reproductive 
toxicants, or irritants as demonstrated by the manufacturer through appropriate 
testing.
· Minimal chemical emissions: Products that have minimal emissions of Volatile 
Organic Compounds (VOCs). Products that also maximize resource and energy 
efficiency while reducing chemical emissions.
· Low-VOC assembly: Materials installed with minimal VOC-producing 
compounds, or no-VOC mechanical attachment methods and minimal hazards.
· Moisture resistant: Products and systems that resist moisture or inhibit the 
growth of biological contaminants in buildings.
· Healthfully maintained: Materials, components, and systems that require only 
simple, non-toxic, or low-VOC methods of cleaning.
· Systems or equipment: Products that promote healthy IAQ by identifying 
indoor air pollutants or enhancing the air quality.
Energy 
efficiency
Materials, components, and systems that help reduce energy consumption in 
buildings and facilities.
· Passive design strategies can dramatically affect building energy performance. 
These measures include building shape and orientation, passive solar design, and 
the use of natural lighting.
· Develop strategies to provide natural lighting. Studies have shown that it has a 
positive impact on productivity and well being.
· Install high-efficiency lighting systems with advanced lighting controls. Include 
motion sensors tied to dimmable lighting controls. Task lighting reduces general 
overhead light levels.
· Use a properly sized and energy-efficient heat/cooling system in conjunction 
with a thermally efficient building shell. Maximize light colors for roofing and 
wall finish materials; install high R-value wall and ceiling insulation; and use 
minimal glass on east and west exposures.
· Minimize the electric loads from lighting, equipment, and appliances.
· Consider alternative energy sources such as renewable energy sources.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 29
Criteria Products performance
Water 
conservation
Products and systems that help reduce water consumption in buildings and conserve 
water in landscaped areas
· Design for dual plumbing to use recycled water for toilet flushing or a gray water 
system that recovers rainwater or other nonpotable water for site irrigation. 
· Minimize wastewater by using ultra low-flush toilets, low-flow shower heads, 
and other water conserving fixtures.
· Use recirculating systems for centralized hot water distribution.
· Install point-of-use hot water heating systems for more distant locations.
· Meter the landscape separately from buildings. Use micro-irrigation (which 
excludes sprinklers and high-pressure sprayers) to supply water in nonturf areas.
· Use state-of-the-art irrigation controllers and self-closing nozzles on hoses.
Affordability Considered when building product life-cycle costs are comparable to conventional 
materials or as a whole, are within a project-defined percentage of the overall 
budget. Several design tools exist to help measure the costs and environmental 
benefits of sustainable products and design strategies. An example is
Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability (BEES 2.0) which is a 
design tool used to measure the "environmental performance of building products by
using the environmental life-cycle assessment approach. All stages in the life of a 
product are analyzed: raw material acquisition, manufacture, transportation, 
installation, use, and recycling and waste management. Economic performance is 
measured using the ASTM (standard life-cycle cost method) which covers the costs 
of initial investment, replacement, operation, maintenance and repair, and disposal."
Source: Based on Froeschle 1999
iv) Reduction of wastes and toxic substances
A good green building design helps the occupants to reduce the quantity of waste generated. It 
also offers solutions such as composting bins, to reduce the volume of matter going to landfills. 
The green architect also aims to reduce waste in terms of energy, water and materials used for 
the construction. This considerable reduces the volume of waste sent for disposal during the 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 30
construction phase. Green building avoids the systematic burial of materials retrieved from 
buildings at the end of their life by recycling and recuperating them. The extension of the useful 
lifetime of a structure also enables waste reduction.
The quality of interior air is an important factor in a green building. To do this, it must also seek 
to reduce volatile organic compounds (VOC) and other air impurities such as microbial 
contaminants. The ventilation systems must be well-designed to ensure suitable ventilation and 
air filtration, as well as to isolate certain activities (kitchens, dry-cleaning, etc.) from other 
applications. 
During design and construction, the choice of construction materials and interior finishing 
products is made to reduce the amount of toxic substances in the building. In effect, many 
construction materials and cleaning products emit toxic gases such as VOC and formaldehyde. 
These gases can have a negative impact on occupant health. By avoiding these products, we can 
increase the quality of the interior environment in a building.
2.2.5 Flexible open space 
The open space in a sustainable community should accommodate both community and 
ecological needs, including protecting key environmental areas or functions, enhancing habitat 
through urban landscape design, offering significant recreation opportunities for people of all 
ages, and providing places to grow food in the city (Toderian, 2008).  
Density offers both benefits and challenges in this regard. Parks, community gardens, and other 
open areas compete for space in a high-density neighborhood. The land these uses occupy 
requires significant civic investment unless a developer has provided them as a condition of 
development. According to Barness (2002) one of the greatest barriers to increasing densities is 
lack of public space and play areas. However, through the use of green roofs, courtyards, and 
other exterior elements, well-designed density can provide strategic opportunities for outdoor 
space and locations to grow food. In addition, from a larger-scale view, focusing growth within 
higher-density areas permits the preservation of farmland, riparian areas, and other key uses on 
the edges of the community.  
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 31
Open and green spaces design
Open spaces in neighborhoods are defined as ‘any unbuilt land within the boundary or
designated envelope of a neighborhood which provides, or has the potential to provide,
environmental, social and/or economic benefits to communities, whether direct or indirect.’
(Campbell, 2001). Open spaces are vital components of neighbourhood design and should 
accommodate community and ecological needs, including protecting key environmental areas or 
functions. They are the arena of neighbours’ outdoor interactions consequently building the 
neighbourhood’s sense of community, and in the micro ecological sphere setting
its parameters and configuring its fundamentals (Khalid, 2008). In differentiating vegetated areas 
from non-vegetated areas Khalid (2008) bought the following typological classification:
a) Greenspace: a sub-set of open space, consisting of any vegetated land or structure, 
water or geological feature within urban areas.
b) Greyspace (sometimes referred to as “civic space”): a sub-set of open space, 
consisting of urban squares and other paved or hard landscaped areas with a civic 
function.
Table 2.4 Subsets of green space and grey space
Green space Function
1) Parks and gardens Areas of land, normally enclosed, designed, constructed, managed 
and maintained as a public park or garden. Their primary function is 
for informal activity or relaxation, social and community purposes, 
and horticultural or arboricultural displays. Some may also be 
designated landscapes of historical importance of national 
significance
2) Amenity greenspace Managed and maintained landscaped areas with no designated 
specific use by people, but providing visual amenity or
separating different buildings or land uses for environmental, visual 
or safety reasons. They may also be used, incidentally, as wildlife 
habitats.
3) Children play areas Designated and maintained areas providing safe and accessible 
opportunities for children’s play, usually linked to housing areas and 
therefore normally set within a wider green
environment of amenity open space. The primary
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 32
function of these areas is to provide safe facilities for
children to play, usually close to home and under
informal supervision from nearby houses.
4) Sports facilities Designed, constructed, managed and maintained large and generally 
on flat areas of grassland or specially-designed artificial surfaces, 
used primarily for designated sports. The primary function of these 
areas is to accommodate practice, training and competition for 
recognized outdoor sports.
5) Green corridor Routes linking different areas within a town or city as part of a 
designated and managed network and used for walking, cycling
or horse riding or linking towns and cities to their surrounding 
countryside or country parks. The primary function of green corridors 
is to allow safe, environment-friendly movement within urban areas. 
Moreover, they support wildlife colonization and therefore habitat 
creation.
6) Natural & semi- natural 
greenspaces
Undeveloped land with little or only limited maintenance which
have been planted with wild flowers or colonized by vegetation and 
wildlife. They also include woodland, railway embankments, river 
and canal banks and derelict land, which may in some cases be 
thought of as temporary natural greenspace. The primary function of 
natural greenspaces is to
promote biodiversity and nature conservation.
7) Other functional 
greenspaces:
Essentially allotments, the yards of religious buildings and 
cemeteries.
Greyspace Function
1) Civic squares and plazas: Often containing statues or fountains and primarily paved,
Sometimes providing a setting for important public buildings.
2) Market places Usually with historic connotations
3) Pedestrian streets Usually former roads which have been paved over and provided with 
seats and planters.
4) Promenades and sea 
fronts
Usually used for recreational activities. They have special value
when located at historical areas.
Source: Based on Khalid, 2008
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 33
Ironside (2005) gives a detailed definition to sustainable residential greenspace as: “Greenspace 
fit for its purpose, responsive to evolving needs and changes over an extended period of time, not 
requiring an excessive input of resources.”
The role of open space in achieving sustainable neighbourhood can thus be formulated as 
belows; (Campbell, 2001, Ironside, 1999, Birkeland 2004)
· Encouraging sustainable lifestyles, for example by providing paths and cycle routes,
· Reduce the level of car reliance, by creating neighborhoods where walking is the natural
· and pleasurable means of access between activities,
· Enhancing local security and community by increasing the number of people on the 
streets and the design of the path itself,
· Making maximum use of existing features and assets,
· Strengthening the sense of place,
· Incorporating local or recycled materials,
· Encouraging community participation and involvement,
· Reducing inputs of non-renewable resources during construction and subsequent
maintenance,
· Eliminating or reducing the use of herbicides and resources that affect other ecosystems,
· Encouraging habitat creation and native planting,
Sustainability goals associated with open green space include:
i) Cutting green house gas emissions: achieved by reducing the need to travel, reducing car 
reliance and increased energy efficiency in buildings;
ii) Closing local resource loop: achieved by reducing demand for non-renewable resources, 
reuse and recycling of resources, local water sourcing, treatment and aquifers recharge, 
local low input food production;
iii) Enhancing local environmental quality: promotes local distinctiveness and heritage, 
create an attractive public realm, enhance local habitat diversity ;
iv) Creating a healthy environment: improves local air quality, promotes an active lifestyle 
(especially walking), encourage consumption of fresh fruit and vegetables.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 34
v) Increasing street safety: Reduce the chance of vehicle/ pedestrian accidents, reduce the 
fear of violence.
vi) Increasing accessibility and freedom of choice: Choice of transport mode for trips, and 
more facilities accessible locally.
vii) Equity and social inclusion: Choice of facilities within easy walking distance, viability of 
public transport.
viii) Local work opportunities: Accessible jobs for those tied to the locality, reduce transport 
emission.
ix) Value of local community: facilitate accessible social networks, promotes mental health.
x) Increasing local self determination: Increasing user/citizen control, management of 
decentralized systems.
2.2.6 Green Infrastructure 
The green infrastructure of a city is comprised of natural and designed systems and elements of 
the city that function in ways analogous to natural processes in managing air, water, 
microclimatic and energy resources( Schneekloth, 2003). The most obvious part of this 
infrastructure are trees, open spaces, lawns and parks, and all places that have water-pervious 
surfaces and soil to support plant material. Green infrastructure strategies should be created for 
every sustainable community to address the supply and management of energy, potable water, 
and materials and the reuse or disposal of wastewater, stormwater, and solid waste. Denser 
development provides higher demand for energy for heating, lighting and cooling that makes 
innovative infrastructure systems financially viable. Waste energy from mixed uses can also 
provide opportunity for efficiency and utility investments (Toderian (2008).
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 35
Table 2.5 Functions of green infrastructure
Function of green infrastructure
Air quality improvement
i) Vegatation reduces air pollution as it filters dust particles and pollutants attached to them,
ii) Trees also absorb carbon.
Microclimate modification
iii) Non-porous urban surfaces absorb and hold heat during warm weather, contributing to the “heat 
island effect” where temperatures can be 8-10% hotter than the surrounding countryside. This is 
much more severe in extensively paved high density urban areas. For example a study conducted 
in Los Angeles suggested that relatively minor green projects can make significant difference in 
both pollution control and heat reduction. Increasing the urban green space by 5% in Los Angeles 
and replacing dark roofs and asphalt with lighter surfaces including green roofs could lower 
overall temperatures by 4 degrees (F).(Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, 2002)
iv) Strategically planted trees serve as wind breaks, in part by lifting strong seasonal winds up and 
over the leeward structures and by breaking down strong winds patterns.
Storm water management
v) Green infrastructure naturalizes the hydrological cycles in a city. The hard surfaces of the urban
fabric increase the intensity of the runoff and the amount of pollutants in urban waters. This is 
because instead of water soaking into the ground it travels quickly into storm water drainage
systems that flows into the rivers and streams, causing increased flooding and erosion. The green 
fabric on the other hand absorbs the water at the source, recharging the groundwater, filtering 
pollutants, and slowing down the water travel. This improves water quality and is cost effective.
Bio diversity
vi) Green infrastructure encourages a rich variety of birds and animals. Wildlife in the city moves 
through riparian corridors along rivers, streams and large parks that have areas of native 
vegetation. The more we encourage wildlife in the city at appropriate places, the more varied and 
enriched will be quality of daily life.
Recreational opportunities
vii) Urban green fabric acts a multi-use structure; active reaction and sports field, bicycle/nature 
trails, bird watching, school trips etc.
Source: Based on Schneekloth, 2003.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 36
It is important to have regulatory provisions for preservation of green space. The main strategies 
in any section of the urban development should be to reduce paving and increase vegetation.
Schneekloth, (2003) proposes several site planning policies to help reduce excess paving:
· Density zoning; regulation of overall density in terms of units per acre, or percentage of 
acreage devoted to structures and hard surfaces,
· Cluster development; placing several buildings together surrounded by open space, rather 
than each unit being in the centre of its separate plot, can greatly reduce infrastructure 
costs including paving,
· Combined landuses; Zoning that allows residences and workplaces to coexist makes 
walking, biking, or public transit much easier for workers,
· Impervious surface limit; Set maximum percentage of the site area that can be 
impervious. This includes both paved and roofed areas. According to Schneekloth, (2003) 
a level of impervious surface of over 10%  has serious impacts that require mitigation, 
and a level of over 30% will inevitably cause serious degradation of the ecosystem.
· Use of porous paving material; not all parking areas need to be paved. More permeable 
material like gravel or porous asphalt/concrete should be used. Others porous materials 
include grassed pavers ( allow grass to grow on open cell of concrete), and  wide joint 
paving blocks instead of continuous asphalt sheet.
· Cool asphalt with plants and reflective surfaces; to reduce heat increase from paving, 
plant shade trees along and also increase the reflectivity of pavement by mixing asphalt 
with light coloured stones that will make paving less heat absorptive.
· Street width limit; Oversized roads also have negative effects on traffic safety and quality 
of life of the local community. Research shows that real cause of most accidents is speed, 
and wide, straight, flat roadways encourage drivers to speed.
· Planted roundabout; paving the centre of roundabouts is no use to drivers and can be 
replaced by permeable, planted surfaces as a matter of policy.
· Storm drain inlet labeling; This will indicate where pavement runoff goes to increase 
community awareness and decrease public dumping of pollutants onto pavements and 
drains. Pavement water can also be directed into planted areas or bioswales-linear, 
planted drainage channels, that allow it to soak into the ground.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 37
The other principle of minimizing urban hardscape is to replace impervious surfaces with more 
water absorbing materials. Vegetation is one obvious way of increasing permeability of our 
urban surfaces. Opportunities for increasing urban vegetation include; planting trees, greenwalls 
and use of ecoroofs. While tree are the most obvious part of the urban landscape, green walls and 
ecoroofs are less common. 
Figure 2.2 Increasing urban green space by greening roads
Source: Adapted from Schneekloth, 2003
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Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 38
Increased greenspace
(roof gardens/ecoroofs)
Greenspace
Green walls offer effective alternatives to conventional landscape retaining walls. Examples 
include use of block wall material with gaps where plants root through the wall or interlocking 
circle or diamond –shaped units stacked like masonry with plants growing in between the gaps. 
Major advantages of green wall include: it deadens and diffuse  noise, makes graffiti impossible, 
cuts heat and glare, holds or slows rainwater, traps air pollutants, and processes carbon dioxide, 
while providing food and shelter for wildlife ( Schneekloth, 2003).
Ecoroofs involves covering the entire roof of a building with a continuous layer of growing 
medium as thin as 50milimeters ( 2 inches) that supports low maintenance vegetation. They are 
alternatives to conventional roof gardens that address the issues of low maintenance, hardiness 
and lightweight. On the other hand, conventional roofs are impervious to water, and exposed to 
high winds, they cause severe micro climate by absorbing or reflecting heat.
Ecoroofs do not require flat roofs like conventional roof gardens but may be installed on roofs 
with slopes up to 30 degrees pitch ( Schneekloth, 2003).
Figure 2.3 Increased green space through roof gardens and ecoroof
Source: Author, 2013
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 39
The environmental benefits of eco roofs are considerable: they improve building’s thermal 
insulation, reduce the urban “heat island” effect by absorbing less heat, produces oxygen, 
absorbs and stores carbon dioxide, filters air pollution, provide wildlife habitat especially for 
birds, and absorbs upto 75% of rain falling on it, thus slowing storm water runoff.  Ecoroof 
feature the following layers: a water proof membrane, a layer of insulation, a drainage layer and 
the growing medium or “substrate”. Because of the poor and thin growing medium, the 
microenvironment requires plants that do well in thin, nutrient-poor substrate such as xerophytic 
plants.
2.2.7 A healthy food system 
A sustainable community includes food stores and restaurants, along with the provision of 
community garden space in neighborhoods. Some studies have suggested that as much fuel is 
used in a year to get a family’s food to the table as is used by that family for all their other 
activities put together. Furthermore, the visibility and celebration of food in a neighborhood is an 
excellent source of social and cultural vitality—an important aspect of sustainability that should 
not be overlooked.  Dense developments support local food stores and restaurants, community 
gardens, and other creative food-producing ventures, thereby offering residents convenient 
access to basic provisions. As noted earlier, compact, sprawl-reducing density can also support 
regional preservation of key, nearby agricultural areas.
2.2.8 Community facilities and programs 
A sustainable community should provide key community facilities to support a healthy lifestyle, 
and the creation of diverse and positive social experiences for people of all ages. This includes a 
high-quality public realm that is designed to promote safety and encourage residents to meet 
each other and build relationships ( Toderian, 2008)
Denser development leads to a much stronger business case for both public (e.g., community 
centers, parks) and private (e.g., supermarkets, coffee shops) amenities and programs. It also 
fosters a public realm that is able to generate high-quality activities that encourage the interaction 
of neighborhood residents.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 40
2.2.9 Economic development 
A sustainable community should offer many ecologically responsible opportunities for 
investment, businesses, and employment that will, in turn, support an economically diverse and 
prosperous community. A range of commercial (office and retail) facilities should be offered to 
maximize working and shopping opportunities. Well-designed density is vital to a strong 
economic foundation in any neighborhood as it brings a critical mass of local employees and
customers to support a variety of community needs ( Toderian, 2008)
2.3 Sustainable Designs
According to Watson & Labs (2003) sustainable design recognizes that human civilization is an 
integral part of the natural resources upon which all biological life of the planet depends. This 
places monumental understanding at the core of design of urban places and cities. Sustainable 
design should be inspired by and learn from the lessons of nature. A natural organism utilizes 
sunlight and rainwater as sustenance, has mechanisms to endure scarcity, produces nothing that 
is wasted and co evolves with its surrounding to reproduce life (Watson & Labs 2003). In other 
words;
· The natural organism makes use of immediately and locally available materials to 
construct itself and does so with economy and efficiency. The same strategy should be 
utilized in development to minimize global and local impacts on resources,
· The natural organism adapts to its environment through instinctive reaction and 
evolutionary process of generations. Through the ability to rationalize and mechanize, 
humans have the ability to adapt psychologically and physically in a matter of hours but 
often with little natural instincts or understanding of feedback and interrelationships with 
environment.
· The natural organisms maintain a sustaining relationship with its environment by a 
balance between its needs and available resources. Similarly sustainable designs adjusts 
demands, lifestyles and technologies to evolve a compatible balance with the natural and
cultural systems within its environment.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 41
Water Cycling
Creation of
micro climate
Recycling of appropriate sustainable
nutrients and water from the sun
Appropriate site dependent
structural basis and design
Modification and enhancement
of natural conditions
Evaporative heat removal
enhanced by air movement
Absorption of natural energy
heat from the sun
Equal importance of all parts
Use of available resources
Site determined by available
resources and natural forces
Creation of habitat and co
dependence on other life forms
Growth regeneration
and replacement
Soil replenishment
nutrients cycling
Form determined by response
to natural systems
Figure 2.4 Sustainable designs and natural organism
Source: Adapted from Watson & Labs, 2003
2.3.1 Sustainable tall building
The definition of the sustainable tall building should encompass architectural, engineering and 
planning issues, within the context of the building’s environmental performance, urban impact 
and global sustainability (Goncalves  & Umakoshi 2010). With regard to the impacts on the built 
environment, the design of the tall building should be part of a master plan and urban design 
strategy that considers density and socio-economic dynamics.  The conditions must provide 
appropriate infrastructure and the insertion of tall buildings should create form and height 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 42
influenced by the overall urban morphology of the site and not compromise environmental 
quality (Goncalves  & Umakoshi 2010).
At the building scale the basic guidelines are to reduce the demand for energy and water through 
design, while materials should be specified for durability and flexibility, considering locally 
sourced materials and labour skills. Passive strategies for cooling and heating of the building 
internal environment should be maximized depending on the local climatic requirements, and 
daylight penetration should also be maximized. In addition the building should operate towards 
zero carbon dioxide emission when considering heating, cooling, lighting and other mechanical 
and electrical systems.
Based on the principles of environmental designs and energy efficiency Goncalves  & Umakoshi 
(2010) gave a proposal for environmental assessment of tall buildings structured in two parts: 
qualitative overview and quantitative analytical approach.
Table 2.6 Environmental assessment of tall buildings
Environmental assessment of tall buildings
1. Urban 
context:
Urban form and skyline: to be part of a cluster of tall buildings, existing or 
planned.
Infrastructure and mobility: to be supported by an efficient public transport system 
so that tall building does not impose any negative impact on urban mobility. In 
addition the use of automobiles should be inhibited by reducing the number of 
parking spaces in the development and promoting more sustainable means of 
transportation including bicycles and trips by foot.
Besides transportation systems, the necessary support of other infrastructure 
utilities to respond to the demands of tall buildings, including provision of energy, 
water, communication systems and collection of wastes and sewerage should be in 
place prior to the development of the tall building.
Building function versus local socio-economic structure: The basic functions and 
socio-economic activities brought by the tall buildings should be appropriate to 
vocation of the local context, possibly adding economic value and incrementing the 
social-economic dynamics of the place.
2. Ground 
conditions and 
Solar access and daylight availability to neighbouring buildings and open 
spaces:Objective is to avoid the negative impact of the tall buildings on solar 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 43
environmental 
impacts 
access and daylight availability to the neighbouring buildings. Solar access is 
critical issue for residential buildings, as is daylight availability for offices and 
buildings of other uses. In general the most relevant impacts of tall buildings on 
urban micro climate are extensive shadow casting, creation of wind turbulence, and 
reduction of skyview factor. Assessment of the impact of the tall building on the 
sky view factors from strategic points in the surrounding buildings such as 
windows from residential buildings and green and seating areas in public spaces 
should be done
Pollution dispersal: the effects of the tall building on the air flow around buildings 
can have substantial contribution to pollution dispersion.
Quality of public space and pedestrian comfort: Objective is to contribute to socio-
economic vitality at street level and to the communication between public spaces, 
avoiding an oppressive impact on the pedestrian domain ( due to difference in 
scale) and avoiding pedestrian discomfort through undesirable turbulence and 
overshadowing effects.
3. Well being Thermal comfort: The objective is to achieve recommended levels of thermal 
comfort. A number architectural features and environmental strategies which can 
improve thermal comfort include form and orientation, solar protection in the 
design of facades to avoid direct solar radiation, creation of buffer zones between 
inside and outside environment with the design of atriums, double skins facades 
and other kinds of semi-open spaces.
Daylight and visual comfort: the objective is to achieve recommended levels and 
good uniformity of daylight in working spaces. Architectural features and 
environmental strategies include form and orientation, depth of floor plate, floor to 
ceiling height, atriums, disposition of windows, shading devices, light shelves, 
special glass technology to control glare or innovative technical systems to 
incorporate daylight and control glare such as light pipes.
Views, social interaction and privacy: Objective is to promote the social 
integration of the occupants and visual communication between inside and outside 
environment as well as among internal spaces. Architectural features include: 
spaces for communal use including leisure or cultural activities, atriums and 
gardens. The design of the layout and internal partitions whether open plan or 
cellular combined with depth of the floor plate and floor to ceiling height will also 
have an impact on views towards the outside.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 44
Acoustic comfort: Aiming at comfortable levels of noise. Architectural features 
include layout, design of internal partitions and finishing materials, density figures.
4. Energy and 
environment 
Architectural features: The objective is reduction of a building’s energy 
consumption in comparison to local standards through architectural design.
Architectural features and environmental strategies include form and orientation, 
façade technology, materials, depth of the floor plate, presence of gardens, atriums, 
balconies and other types of buffer zone, internal space sectorization and any other 
architectural particularity. 
Adaptability to future changes: The success of the environmental performance of
the building in the near future will most likely depend on the adaptability of the 
design to accommodate changes of use, technology, environmental legislation, 
economic values and even climate change.
5. Environmental 
identity
Architectural expression: Te objective is to achieve synthesis between architecture, 
environment and technology in order to achieve good environmental performance 
and identity. Architectural features and environmental strategies include: building 
form, design of the facades, organization of internal spaces and integration with 
technical systems. It is expected that the architectural concept will be informed by 
the principles of environmental design and the detailed design will be in 
accordance with the results of technical environmental assessments, carried out 
throughout the design process.
Source: Based on Goncalves  & Umakoshi 2010
In  multi –tenant tall buildings, it can be argued that the direct economic benefits of better 
environmental-performance buildings do not go to the initial investors and, for this reason, 
investment in more environmentally responsive buildings is not considered economically 
attractive. However the energy savings and the improved environmental quality can be attractive 
to tenants, with benefits such as marketability and securing/ future proofing investments to the 
investor (Goncalves  & Umakoshi 2010). This therefore calls for change in attitude since there 
are economic advantages arising from improved productivity of satisfied occupants and 
reduction in overall costs of the environmental impacts of building operation.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 45
2.3.2 Bioclimatic design at the site planning scale
Favourable microclimatic conditions can be created in and around buildings and outdoors spaces 
to dramatically increase comfort and reduce energy requirements (Watson & Labs, 2003). 
During cool winter periods the objectives are to protect outdoors spaces, entryways and 
structures from winter wind and to promote gain of solar heat. In summer (or overheated periods) 
the objectives are the reverse, to resist solar gain by shading and to promote cooling by 
ventilation (Watson & Labs, 2003). Several bioclimatic techniques at the site planning stage 
include:
· Wind breaks during cooler periods using landforms, structures or vegetation,
· Sun shading during summer periods using landforms, structures, vegetation, or other sun 
shading elements
· Natural ventilation: this is a simple concept by which to cool outdoor spaces and 
buildings. Neighbouring landforms, structures or vegetation can be used to increase 
exposure to cool breeze during summer.
· Plants and water: several landscaping techniques provide cooling by the use of plants and 
water near building surfaces and outdoor spaces for shading and evaporative cooling. 
These include use of ground cover and planting for site cooling and maximizing on site 
evaporative cooling.
2.3.3 Use of ground cover and planting for site cooling
Neighbourhood air temperature can be kept low by minimizing the expanse of paving and by 
shading paved areas. Porous paving blocks should also be used instead of the asphalt. Porous 
concrete paving can be precast or cast on site. The difference in surface temperature between 
grass and asphalt can easily exceed 25 degrees (F). The relationship of lawn and other living 
ground cover surfaces to non-evaporating surfaces (driveways, streets, roofs etc) will in part 
determine neighbourhood air temperatures according to Watson & Labs (2003). Vegetation 
should be maximized and where possible man made surfaces such as streets and roofs should be 
shaded by trees.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 46
Non-living surfaces are much hotter than grass since they don’t dissipate heat through 
evaporation. A black roof is hotter than an asphalt driveway because the ground underneath the 
paving stores heat.
Figure 2.5 Surface temperatures on different surfaces
Source: Adapted from Watson & Labs, 2003.
2.3.4 Use of atrium or courtyard to provide onsite evaporative cooling mechanism
Since cool air is denser than warm air, the atrium creates a tank of air usually with a fountain at 
the bottom. This cool atrium provides a cool ventilation air supply. At the same time, the heat 
trapping effect of glazed sun roof at the top propels upward flow of warm air, drawing the cool 
air through the house.
Roof: 140-160F
Concrete: 110F Irrigated turf: 100FAsphalt: 120+ F
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 47
Figure 2.6 Atrium
Source: Adapted from Watson & Labs 2003
2.3.5 Site design
Site designs for sustainable development require low impact planning, construction and property 
maintenance with strategies that do not alter or impair but instead help repair and restore existing 
site systems (Watson & Labs 2003). The following are general considerations that should apply 
to sustainable site design:
· Preserve and enhance the native landscape and its resources,
Atrium
Glazed sunroof
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 48
· Plan landscape development according to the unique features of the surrounding context 
rather than by overlaying standardized patterns and solutions,
· Understand the site as an integrated ecosystem with changes occurring overtime in 
dynamic balance, the impacts of development must be confined within these natural 
changes,
· Allow simplicity of function to prevail while respecting basic human needs of comfort 
and safety,
· Assess feasibility of development in long-term social and environmental costs, not just 
short term construction costs,
· Analyze and model water and nutrient cycles prior to development interventions,
· Minimize areas of vegetation disturbance, earth grading and water channel alteration,
· Locate structures to take maximum advantage of passive energy design and technologies 
to provide for human comfort,
· Provide space for processing wall wastes created on site (collection/ recycling facilities, 
digesters and lagoons) so that reusable/ recyclable resources will not be lost and 
hazardous or destructive wastes will not be released into the environment,
· Determine environmentally safe means of onsite energy production and storage in the 
early stages of site planning,
· Phase developments to allow for monitoring of cumulative environmental impacts of 
development,
· Allow the natural ecosystem to be self maintaining to the greatest extent possible.
The following factors should be considered in the site selection for high density residential 
development:
Carrying capacity: The site analysis should determine this capacity based on the sensitivity of 
site resources,
Density:  Sitting of facilities should be weigh the merits of concentration versus dispersal. While 
natural landscape values may be easier to maintain if the facilities are carefully dispersed, 
concentration of structure leaves more undisturbed natural areas. This is also true on plot size 
level.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 49
Slopes: Building on slopes considered too steep can lead to soil erosion, loss of hillside 
vegetation and damage to fragile wetland and marine ecosystems. Appropriate site selection 
should generally locate more intensive development on gentle slopes, dispersed developments on 
moderate slopes and no development on steep slopes.
Vegetation: Retain as much existing native vegetation as possible to ensure the integrity of the 
site. Natural vegetation is often an essential aspect of the visitors experience and should be 
preserved.
Site selection: should maintain large habitat areas and avoid habitat fragmentation and canopy 
loss. In some areas such as the tropics, most nutrients are held in the forest canopy, not in the 
soils. Loss of canopy therefore causes nutrients loss as well. Plants live in natural associations      
( plants communities) and should remain as established naturally.
Views: views are critical and reinforce a visitor’s experience. Site location should maximize 
views of natural features and minimize views of visitors and support facilities.
Natural hazards: Sustainable development should be located with consideration of natural 
hazards such as precipitous topography, dangerous animals and plants, and hazardous water area. 
Site layout should allow controlled access to these features.
Access to natural and cultural features: Good site design practices can maximize pedestrian 
access to the wide variety of onsite and offsite resources and recreational activities. Low impact 
development is key to protecting vital resource areas,
Energy and utilities: Siting should consider possible connection to offsite utilities or more 
likely spatial needs for onsite utilities. The potential exists for alternative energy use in many 
places particularly solar and wind based energy systems.
Road design and construction: Unpaved surfaces are appropriate in areas of stable soils, 
lowers slopes and low traffic loads, but they require more maintenance. Permeable paved 
surfaces allow limited percolation of precipitation while providing better wear than unpaved 
surfaces. Permeable parking surfaces provide a means of recharging the local aquifer rather than 
creating accelerated storm runoff. Impermeable paved surfaces are needed for roads with the 
highest load and traffic requirements. Wherever possible recycled materials should be used in the 
construction of the road surface eg. crushed glass, shredded rubber tyres or recycled aggregate.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 50
Figure 2.7 Permeable paved surfaces
Source: Adapted from Schneekloth, 2003
2.3.6 Site utilities
Utility systems need to be identified that do not adversely affect the environment. Impacts such 
as soil disturbance and intrusion on the visual setting need to be avoided. When utility lines are 
necessary they should be buried near other corridor areas that are already disturbed eg roads and 
pedestrian paths.
2.3.6.1 Storm drainage
In undisturbed landscape storm drainage is typically handled by vegetation canopy, ground cover 
plants, soil absorption, streams and water ways. In modified landscapes consideration must be 
given to the impacts of storm drainage on the existing natural system of drainage and the 
resulting structures and systems that will be necessary to handle the new drainage pattern. The 
main principles in storm drainage control are to regulate run off, to provide protection from soil 
erosion and to avoid directing water into unmanageable volumes. Removal of natural vegetation, 
topsoil and natural channels that provide natural drainage control should be avoided. An 
alternative should be to stabilize soils, capture runoff in depressions -which usually have plants 
that help store and clean water and help recharge local ground water supply- and revegetate areas 
to replicate natural drainage systems.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 51
2.3.6.2 Water supply
Water is a nourisher of plants and animal life, a bearer of food, a prime element of industrial 
processes and a medium of transportation (Watson et al 2003). It is also an essential element of 
recreation, aesthetics and spiritual life. To ensure global, regional and local water resources can 
meet the demands of the future, all infrastructure, urban development and buildings require 
design for water conservation, collection, storage, treatment and re-use.
2.3.6.3 Garbage and solid waste prevention
An effective garbage prevention strategy requires that everything brought into a facility is 
recycled for reuse or recycled back into the environment through biodegradation (Watson et al 
2003).  Two basic sources of solid waste include materials purchased and used by the facility and 
those brought into the facility by visitors. Waste prevention strategies applicable include:
i) Use products that minimize waste and are non toxic
Consideration should be given to materials or products that minimize waste disposal 
needs- e.g. purchasing materials with minimal packaging, buying in bulk, and replacing 
disposable products with durable reusable items. Use of plastics for packaging should be 
discouraged. When selecting materials and goods nothing should be purchasing that will 
ultimately become toxic and these should be substituted with non-toxic materials. 
Materials should be purchased locally wherever possible. Locally produced goods need 
less transport and less storage and have less packaging waste.
ii) Recovery of nutrients from waste streams by composting, anaerobically digest  
biodegradable wastes or constructed wastelands and solar assisted aquaculture
Between 60-75% of the solid waste is bio-covertible (Watson & Labs, 2003). This can be 
done through several methods: Composting, is where large chunks of relatively inert 
material like wood chips are added to organic waste and aeration done to make the 
process work. On the other hand anaerobic digestion is a process where food waste, 
animal wastes and so on go through a fermentation process to produce a variety of useful 
by-products such as biogas and high quality organic solid and liquid fertilizer
iii) Reuse material onsite or collect suitable materials for offsite recycling
This can be maximized through the purchase of products for which there is ready market 
as recycled materials. For example, glass beverage containers can be ground up and used 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 52
road and building construction. Efficient recycling requires sorting of materials and 
convenient bins should be provided at the facility for the materials being recycled, so that 
remaining residual waste is collected separately and disposed offsite.
Table 2.7 Sustainable design guidelines
Sustainable design guidelines
Spatial analysis
1. Systematically record the natural resources of site and region,
2. Allocate landuse according to productive potential and human social needs,
3. Understand the bio climatic design strategies for promoting winter heat gain and reducing summer 
overheating,
4. Use local resources to increase self reliance,
5. Explore natural processes as the genesis of material used and application of recylcled & new 
materials to constructions,
6. Value natural systems and processes.
Energy production and conversion
7. Use efficient equipment and appliances to reduce energy demand
8. Match energy quality to end use needs,
9. Promote day lighting in building design,
10. Consider biomass combustion,
11. Use annual cycle solar-thermal storage to balance seasonal excesses of heat and cold,
12. Generate electricity photovoltaically,
13. Install appropriate energy storage to buffer intermittent production of energy,
14. Harness wind/hydro/Geothermal sources of power to balance winter slump in solar resource,
15. Provide grid connection to regional electric utility storage,
16. Use metabolic energy to reduce capital energy intensity.
Water supply
17. Reduce water consumption by installing efficient fixtures and outlets,
18. Reduce water consumption by matching water quality to end use,
19. Collect rainwater for potable and process needs,
20. Collect surface runoff for process needs.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 53
Sustainable design guidelines
Nutrient/ Waste recycling
21. Collect gray water separately from black water,
22. Use alga cultures/aquatic plants to remove nutrients, pollutants and pathogens,
23. Compost organic materials,
24. Consider anaerobic digestion of organic materials.
Food production
25. Match food production with human nutritional requirements,
26. Couple intensive food production to medium density residential development to complete a 
nutrient/ waste cycle,
27. Adopt organic and biodynamic farming techniques,
28. Maintain perennial polycultures for fruits and grain crops,
29. Use aquatic techniques for fish and algae production,
30. Exploit the synergistic potential of a systematic approach to food production,
31. Use “bioshelters” to modify climate for increased production,
32. Provide food storage from one season to the next for seasonal produce.
Materials
33. Value the energy invested in the production of materials,
34. Design for long life and easy eventual recycling of material constituents,
35. Maintain recycling centres for the accumulation and marketing source separated goods,
36. Value shape over mass in achieving strength and stability.
Shelter design
37. Locate building on sloping non-prime agricultural land,
38. Construct low rise dwelling units in attached clusters or rows,
39. Orient buildings and primary solar collectors for solar access.
40. Design structures for long life and adaptability,
41. Employ super insulated building techniques to reduce heat gains and losses,
42. Landscape for microclimatic amelioration.
Source: Based on Bruce Coldham, 2003
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 54
2.4 The Factors That Affect Densification and Their Implications
Draft Technical Report on Cape Town Densification Strategy (2009) highlights the following as 
major factors constraining and enabling densification and impacting on the form of densification 
(location, design and quality); policy, legislation and regulations, economic and market forces,
social and lifestyle considerations, form and nature of the built environment, and technological 
issues.
Table 2.8 Factors affecting densification and their implications
 Factors affecting Densification and their implications
· Policy, 
legislation and 
regulations
Land Use ,Zoning (density controls) and related policy
s These controls restrict land use, prescribe minimum plot sizes, building heights, 
plot ratio, coverage, setbacks, boundary lines and parking standards, and impacts 
significantly on the design and extent of buildings and related spaces.
s Such controls form part of a zoning scheme, or are policy directives, endorsed by 
Council. 
s Existing zoning schemes and related regulations have had a direct and 
fundamental influence on densification and built form.
· Economic and 
market forces
s Market forces normally drive demand towards the middle/ high income, well 
serviced low density areas. This leads to land use invasion.
s Reasons are security, good infrastructure, savings on maintenance, convenience, 
and profit maximization.
s Market forces are a factor that can be positively used by the authority through 
various planning, regulations and incentive means to develop well-designed, 
qualitative and appropriately developed higher densities. This will be most likely 
in the middle to higher income section of the property market.
· Social and 
lifestyle 
considerations
s A lack of acceptance and social considerations affect the development of higher 
densities. These includes the following:
§ view of high-rise as unattractive buildings;
§ loss of identity or perceived built character of a home;
§ loss of privacy from overlooking buildings and windows;
§ overcrowding, noise and traffic congestion;
§ an accumulative impact on infrastructural service capacity;
§ depreciation of property values; and
§ loss of public open space.
§ the more complicated and costly management arrangement associated 
with shared block, co-operative and sectional title ownership.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 55
· Form and 
nature of the 
built 
environment
s Roads structure and layout: Mobility oriented environments dominated by 
freeways and major arterials that segregate activities and focus on road based 
vehicle movement with very little access act as barriers to densification
s Surrounding land uses and environment: Large mono-functional land uses do not 
encourage higher densities. Areas lacking integrated commercial and high order 
urban functions reduce the possibility of densification.
Investment in higher-density development is also affected by a declining public 
environment, criminal activity, poor surveillance and insufficient parking. Certain 
mixed development areas that are perceived to be very noisy, unattractive and 
unsafe are also a deterrent.
s Infrastructure capacities: Limited infrastructure capacity is a vital factor for the 
accommodation of higher-density development in the existing (older) areas of the 
City. The demand for increased infrastructural capacity with respect to 
densification patterns/trends requires strict coordination and planning for 
infrastructural upgrading and provision.
Market forces often determine the provision of infrastructural services to
locations of new housing and commercial developments (new growth areas).
Older areas however also require infrastructural upgrading and expansion since 
these areas are often better suited to densification for reasons of location, 
diversity, mixed uses and access to public transport.
s Urban conservation: There is a tendency for densification to be made difficult in 
heritage/ conservation areas due to public resistance, or objections, through the 
development application process.
· Technological 
issues
s Road based private transport: Increase in private car ownership and usage has 
enabled low density spread of the city. Accommodating the parking of private 
vehicles has also become an issue with the consumption of valuable urban space, 
especially at places of work and on residential properties.
A sustainability crisis concerning city functioning and efficiency is emerging with 
continuous traffic congestion, insufficient parking, vehicle pollution, expensive 
road maintenance, rising fuel costs and a declining and unfeasible public transport 
system.
Source: Based on Cape Town Densification Strategy Technical Report
2.5 Theories of Urban Land use Structure
There are several models that have been developed to explain the urban land use pattern. We 
shall look at some classical as well as some contemporary models. 
2.5.1 Classical models:
Some of the classical models reviewed here below include Concentric Growth Model, The 
Sector Model, and Multiple Nuclei Model
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 56
a) Concentric Growth Model
This was developed by Burgess in 1924 where he used the concept of plant ecology as had been 
presented by the University of Chicago and applied ecological terms such as Invasion, 
Competition, Dominance and Succession to groups of people (Gathuri, 2007). 
According to this theory:
i) City grows outward in concentric rings
ii) City has a single centre, otherwise known as the CBD (Central Business District)
iii) Around the business centre is an area of older industry and beyond that are residential 
areas
iv) It is assumed that the poor cannot afford to commute long distances, and also that they 
must live in the older and cheaper houses near the centre, so low class residential are near 
the CBD
v) The wealthy live in a commuter zone outside the city proper
vi) Best describes the pre-automobile (pre 1920) pattern of North American cities but is still 
useful today in describing patterns in the older parts of our towns.
The urban area according to the theory is divided into concentric zones.
Figure 2.8 Concentric growth model
Source: Adapted from Burgess, 1925
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 57
· Zone I: Central Business District (called the "loop" in Chicago) where most of the 
tertiary employment is located and where the urban transport infrastructure is converging, 
making this zone the most accessible.
· Zone II: Immediately adjacent to the CBD a zone where many industrial activities locate 
to take advantage of nearby labor and markets. Further, most transport terminals, namely 
port sites and railyards, are located adjacent to the central area.
· Zone III: This zone is gradually been reconverted to other uses by expanding 
manufacturing / industrial activities. It contains the poorest segment of the urban 
population, notably first generation immigrants living, in the lowest housing conditions.
· Zone IV: Residential zone dominated by the working class and those who were able to 
move away from the previous zone (often second generation immigrants). This zone has 
the advantage of being located near the major zones of employment (I and II) and thus 
represents a low cost location for the working class.
· Zone V: Represents higher quality housing linked with longer commuting costs.
· Zone VI: Mainly high class and expensive housing in a rural, suburbanized, setting. The 
commuting costs are the highest. Prior to mass diffusion of the automobile (1930s), most 
of these settlements were located next to rail stations.
There are several criticisms of this theory. The model is too simple and limited in historical and 
cultural applications since it was developed for American cities and has limited applicability 
elsewhere. The model was also developed when American cities were growing very fast in 
demographic terms and when motorized transportation was still uncommon as most people used 
public transit.  The concentric rings are also not always clear and sometimes there are no functional 
differences in land use patterns from one ring to another. One zone can have more than one land use. 
The concentric model further assumed a spatial separation of place of work and place of residence,
which is not always true.
b) Sector theory
The model (also known as the Hoyt model or sector model), developed in 1939, took into account the 
effect of transportation and communication on a city's growth. His thoughts were that rents could 
remain relatively consistent in certain "slices" of the model, from the downtown center all the way to 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 58
the suburban fringe, giving the model a pie-like look. It has been found that this model works 
especially well in British cities. Communication axes are mainly responsible for the creation of 
sectors, thus transport has directional effect on land uses. From the sector representation the Burgess 
transitional process is still part of land use changes, but there exist axes along which urban 
activities are oriented.
Sector theory recognizes the existence of land use zones, but suggests that there are sectors or wedges 
of land uses in the city due to the emergence of star-shaped transportation routes, such as bus lines 
and streetcar lines. As such, the industrial facilities would lie in a sector along the rail lines coming 
into the city centre and poorer people live adjacent to industrial area near their jobs. The rich who can 
afford private cars or public transport live on the opposite side of town far from the industry and poor, 
while the middle income live in between the high and low income.
Figure 2.9 Sector model
Source: Adapted from Chapin, 1965
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 59
LEGEND
1. CBD
2. WHOLESALE AND LIGHT 
MANUFACTURING
3. LOW-CLASS RESIDENTIAL
4. MIDDLE-CLASS RESIDENTIAL
5. HIGH-CLASS RESIDENTIAL
6. HEAVY MANUFACTURING
7. OUTLYING  BUSINESS DISTRICT
8. RESIDENTIAL SUBURB
9. INDUSTRIAL SUBURB
Hoyt suggested that areas of highest rent tended to be along the main communication lines. The 
wealthy who could afford the highest rent choose the best sites and competition was based on the 
ability to pay (Gathuri, 2007).  Once an area had developed a distinctive land use it tended to 
retain that land use and the growth of that city sector extended outwards.
This growth model however does not explain land use succession for example middle income 
housing invading high income residential neighbourhood like the case in the study area.
c) The Multiple Nuclei Model
Multiple Nuclei Model was advanced by Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman in 1945. The 
model combined the concentric and sector theories, refined the two, and incorporated outlying 
shopping malls, industrial areas and large residential suburbs.CBD no longer has a monopoly on 
retail and commercial activities since outlying malls and industrial parks compete with it.
Industries also move to the edge of the city where land is cheaper.
Figure 2.10 Multiple nuclei model
Source: Adapted from Chapin 1965
The theory postulate that large cities develop by peripheral spread not from one central
business district. There are several nodes of growth, each of specialized use. The separately 
expanding use districts eventually coalesce at their margins. The land use pattern of the city is 
therefore built around several nuclei or nodes and not one single centre.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 60
Light manufacturing and wholesaling are located along transport outer edge of city, Heavy 
industries are surrounded by lower income. The theory is founded on four basic factors:
i) Interdependence of certain types of activities and their need for close physical proximity
ii) Natural clustering tendency among certain types of activities that find mutually profitable 
to locate together,
iii) The appearance of centers to accommodate activities that may have no particular affinity 
for one another, but are inimical to other uses by virtue of the traffic they generate,
iv) Related factor of high rents or high land costs for the most optimum sites which have the 
effect of attracting or repelling users in the process of nucleation. Some activities are thus 
forced to move to the periphery of the city where land is cheaper.
This model has several advantages: location of each nuclei reflects its economic needs e.g Heavy 
industry locates close to the port or transport artery; the different centres attract growth and 
encourage further development; and all nuclei grow until they merge and form one large urban 
area. The model recognizes many of the realities of contemporary metropolitan land use pattern  
and is most applicable to new and fast growing cities like Nairobi. 
Criticism
· The concept may not be totally applicable to oriental cities with different cultural, 
economic and political backgrounds
· There is negligence of impact of height of buildings,
· Abrupt division between zones is sometimes non-existent,
· There is no consideration of influence of physical relief and government policy.
The Multiple Nuclei Model like the other two growth models still does not explain land use 
succession and rapid densification growth pattern like what is happening in the case in the study 
area.
d) Bid Rent Theory
The bid rent theory is primarily attributed to Alonso (1964)  and Muth (1969) and explains 
relationships between distance from the city centre and house prices (Trusell, 2010). The theory 
states that rents are bid upwards close to the city centre as households attempt to minimize 
transportation costs. Transportation costs in this case refer to direct costs ( bus fares and fuel 
costs) and the opportunity costs of commuting ( lost working time, or leisure time). Residents 
living close to the city centre have to travel less to get to work or entertainment centres and this 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 61
decreases disutility. Conversely rents are lower away from the city centre because transportation 
costs for the residents there are high. Thus through competition to minimize transportation costs, 
rent becomes a negative function of distance from the city centre. (Trusell, 2010).
The main assumptions of the Alonso’s bid rent model are:
1. Cities exist on a featureless plain without rivers, hills or other obstacles that might affect 
commuter prices;
2. Transportation costs are a linear function  of distance from the city centre that is the 
marginal decrease in rent per unit of distance  from the city centre corresponds with a one 
on one increase in transportation costs;
3. Assumes that the CBD contains the vast majority of employment  and all other 
employment is distributed evenly throughout the metropolitan area. 
The main assumption is that in a free market the highest bidder is likely to be the one who can 
obtain the maximum profit from that site and so can pay the highest rent ( Gathuri, 2007).  
Competition for land is therefore keener at the centre of the city. Land users, whether retail, 
office, or residential, all compete for the most accessible land within the CBD. The amount they 
are willing to pay is called bid rent. This can generally be shown in a "bid rent curve", based on 
the reasoning that the most accessible land, generally in the centre, is the most expensive land.
Commerce is willing to pay the greatest rent in order to be located in the inner core. The inner 
core is very valuable for these users because it is traditionally the most accessible location for a 
large population. As a result, they are willing and able to pay a very high land rent value. They 
maximize the potential of their site by building many stories. As one travels farther from the 
inner core, the amount that commerce is willing to pay declines rapidly.
Industry, however, is willing to pay to be in the outer core. There is more land available for 
factories, but it still has many of the benefits of the inner core, such as a marketplace and good 
transportation linkages. As one goes farther out, the land becomes less attractive to industry 
because of the reducing transportation linkages and a decreasing marketplace. The inner-city 
areas are also very densely populated (with, e.g., terraces, flats, and high rises), while suburbs 
and rural areas are more sparsely populated (with semi-detached and detached houses) because 
land is not attractive there.
Rent in economic terms is the payment made for factors of production. Factors of production 
include land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship ( Gathuri, 2007).  Rent therefore includes 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 62
payment for factors of production that the landlord has used to construct a house recapitalized as 
monthly payments ( Kingoriah, 1977). The high land rent payable near the inner city lead to 
more intensified land utilization to obtain the maximum profit in order to afford the high rent. 
This partly explains the recent densification trend in Kileleshwa where high land values have 
been pushed for higher development densities.
2.5.2 Contemporary models
Economic, cultural and political factors have interacted to create a contemporary spatial form. 
(Fainstein & Campbell, 2002). Economic restructuring of the last three decades has transformed 
the shape of cities and regions. Production and population have been decentralizing, while 
economic control has become increasing concentrated in multinational firms and financial 
institutions. The new logic of production, employment and distribution has engendered changes 
in landuse and social occupation, it has caused reordering of the urban hierarchy and of the 
economic and political link between places. (Fainstein & Campbell, 2002).
For example the displacement of the manufacturing based economy by the information based 
economy has been accompanied by corresponding decline in industrial and increase in service 
employment (Castell, 1996). These have resulted in rapid growth of financial and producer 
services sector within cities at the top of the urban hierarchy and flight of industries and 
population from others. Several theories have attempted to explain this transformation.
a) Liberal economic theory
This theory emphasizes market competition as the driving force of economic change and 
structure in cities. To grapple within competition that can produce at lower costs, manufacturers 
move their factories to location with cheap labour, replace labour with capital or shrink their 
wage and benefit bill. (Fainstein & Campbell, 2002). 
Spatial configurations associated with mainstream economic theories: 
i) Declining industrial centres; manufacturing departs to suburban areas and peripheral 
regions so as to take advantage of cheaper land and labour costs, less burdensome regulation, 
weaker or non-existent unions and government incentives.
ii) Global cities; the term “global city” refers to those cities in which control of the world 
financial systems rests and where business service sector sells its products to the globe. These 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 63
cities are however not protected from unemployment and neighbourhood deterioration. They 
contain both the rich and the poor.
iii) Expanding and contracting regions; Expanding regions are ones that because of the good 
business climate and governmental investment, they are benefiting from the shift of industry. 
Contracting regions suffer from absolute industrial structures and sociopolitical systems that 
business regards as inhospitable to their profit maximizing goals.(Fainstein & Campbell, 2002). 
In many cities redevelopment strategies have been successful in creating a revitalized core  
( Frieden Sagalyn 1989).  Revitalized areas have experienced increased growth. In Kileleshwa 
for example enhancement of zoning densities has attracted unprecedented growth in the area 
compared to some areas of the city where conservative approach has been adopted ( e.g. Karen 
area in Nairobi)  
b) New Urbanism
New urbanism is an umbrella term for comprehensive regional strategy. It attempts to promote a 
unified design theory for an entire region from the small scale (building block, street) through the 
intermediate scale (corridor, neighbourhood, district) to the large scale ( regional infrastructure 
and ecology) (Kelbaugh, 1997). New urbanism covers important ideas and proposals for 
downtown and inner city neighbourhood as well as an interest in overall regional planning. It 
advocates a strategy that recognizes and celebrates what is unique about a place history, cultures, 
climate and architectures (Kelbaugh, 1997).
c) Pedestrian Pocket or TOD (Transit Oriented Development)
This model emerged in1980s and was developed by Peter Calthorpe. It is a development model 
for a small walkable community that mixes low-rise, medium density housing for a variety of 
households types with retail, civic, recreational and employment centres along a main street-all 
within about a one-quarter mile radius of a central transit stop for a bus or railsystem. (Kelbaugh, 
1997). This tight node may be surrounded by a secondary area or belt of more conventional 
single family homes separated by natural buffers but connected by pedestrian and vehicular 
links.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 64
d) Traditional Neighbourhood Design (TND)
Also known as ”Neotraditionism” is a term that embraces architectural as well as town planning 
precepts (Kelbaugh, 1997). Neotraditionism was conceptualized by Stanford Research in 1985 
and was defined as a non-ideological selection of what is considered to be the best for home 
environments. It is very similar to TOD but TNDs are more rigorous about architectural 
typology, style and detail. TND originated more with traditional notions of city, town, type and 
architecture but with a strong environmental record. Neotraditionism tries to incorporate 
pragmatically whatever works best (Burns, et al 1997). While the two models share a great deal 
at the scale of the town or neighbourhood, they differ in that TODs are predicted more on 
regional transit and open space systems, while TNDs are more rigorous about architectural 
typology, style and detail.
e) Compact city model
According to Marcotullio (2001) the compact city model suggests a variety of norms including 
urban density over decentralization, open space protection over completed built up areas, mixed 
land uses over exclusive zoning, vital downtowns and central business districts containing high 
percentage of residential uses over strictly commercial spaces and high use of public transit over 
individual transportation. Admirers of European cities have often advocated the compact city 
concept. According to Tim Beatley (2000) in his analysis of how European cities are 
implementing green strategies, the compact city model is a natural extension of the European 
city model. Historically, European cities have been fundamentally more compact, with a distinct 
separation between urban and rural zones. These cities are walkable, have good public transit, 
and are generally much less reliant on the automobile as opposed to, for example, American 
cities and regions. (Marcotullio, 2001)
Compact city strategies are varied and include compact growth strategies, national transportation 
and location policies. Compact strategies include a city structure or comprehensive plan that 
gives clear priority to compactness, large block or open space or green wedges come close to 
urban neighborhoods, strong emphasis on infill development and intensification and more 
efficient use of abandoned or underutilized land within the urban core and high level of mixing 
and integration of functions. Key to much of the compact city argument, however, are transit 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 65
oriented transportation systems that prevent usage of the automobile and restrict travel times for 
commuters (Marcotullio, 2001). 
The compact city model and strategies have found their greatest advocates in Europe according 
to Marcotullio (2001). Within Europe the compact model has found its best elaboration in the
northern cities of Germany Denmark and the Netherlands. The Dutch urban system, for example, 
boasts a modest 13 percent of land devoted to cities, despite its high population density. An 
important part of this ordered development is the long history of supporting compact urban 
development strategies within these countries, enhanced by a culture of and environmental need 
for planning on a regional scale.
2.6 Case studies
2.6.1 Cape Town Densification Strategy
Cape Town Densification Strategy ( 2009) was prepared by Densification Task Team which was 
endorsed by the Planning and Environment Portfolio Committee and establishment to oversee 
the preparation of the densification strategy for Cape town. The strategy was based on the 
following considerations regarding density:
· Density offers more housing choices, and accommodates different kinds of lifestyles.
· Density makes better use of the City’s limited resources, and cuts infrastructure costs.
· Density helps protect the environment; by concentrating people in the urban environment, 
natural spaces and habitats are conserved.
· Density makes neighbourhoods more safe, as there are more ‘eyes and ears’ on the  
streets; criminals prefer quiet, desolate places.
· Density supports more transport options, because there are enough people to make public 
transport viable.
· Density offers a better lifestyle for people who cannot drive, such as elderly, very young, 
or disabled people.
· Density builds communities with better access to schools, work, parks and services.
Five different approaches to densification were considered. These are: constructing attached or 
detached second dwellings; increasing the number of units by building extra floors, or increasing 
the size of the building; consolidating vacant or developed properties, and then 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 66
redeveloping them at higher densities; subdividing land; and building on vacant or underused 
land. The densities range from 100 dwelling units per hectare for attached single storey at 
Mountain Rd and Woodstock to 250 dwelling units per hectare at Marine Circle, Table View 
beachfront.
Cape Town’s Densification Strategy was aimed to make the city more efficient and more 
sustainable as well as offer a broader range of living environments. This is by avoiding ‘one-
size-fits-all’ plan but instead have highrise development where it is appropriate while in other 
areas allowing small scale densification in keeping with the character of the neighbourhood.
Overall, the strategy aimed to increase the average density of the city as a whole, and to identify 
those locations that are more suited to higher-density development.
Figure 2.11 Generic considerations for densification
Level of 
densification
 Consideration
Medium to 
high levels of 
densification
1. Access to a safe, secure and efficient public transport system 
Medium to high densities need to be aligned with and support the development of a 
viable public transport system. 
2.Land use integration
Proximity to places of employment, services and facilities is required if the higher-
density areas are to generate the benefits of concentration.
3.Access and proximity to public open spaces
High-density development should be located near urban open spaces (such as squares and 
promenades), recreational green spaces (parks and
sports fields) and natural resource areas (nature areas and reserves, river corridors and 
wetlands, mountain and natural views) and coastlines (beaches and sea views) to provide 
physical and psychological relief from the higher-density environments and to
off-set the lack of private open space.
All forms of 
densification
4.Infrastructural capacity
Densification should not be supported where water, waste water and storm water capacity 
is reaching points of absolute constraint and the cost implications of rectifying the 
situation are too high for the private sector or not planned for within a five year time 
frame.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 67
5.Land use character
The general land use character of an area is important when considering the suitability of 
higher-density development. Urban areas (existing or planned) characterised by a diverse 
land use mix (including different types of residential development) are best suited as 
locations for higher densities. If an area is solely single- dwelling residential it is less 
suitable for higher density development of a different form than where there are flats and 
mixed land use development. 
6. Natural environment 
Higher-density development areas should not negatively impact on the landscape and 
scenic aspects of the surrounding natural environment, or on the operation of natural 
systems. The location, orientation, scale, height, and design of higher-density 
development in scenic and sensitive landscapes should be adjusted so as not to negatively 
impact on the surrounding natural environment. In locations next to productive 
agricultural areas, lower densities may be a more preferable interface to absorb the 
impacts of farming activities while mitigating the negative ‘urban shadow’ effect on 
abutting productive agriculture.
Source: Based on Cape Town Densification Strategy Technical Report, 2009
Figure 2.12 Examples of densities in Cape Town and other cities
Source: Based on Cape Town Densification Strategy Technical Report, 2009 
  Urban densities in Cape Town
Mountain Rd, Woodstock 
(attached single storeys):
100 dwelling units 
per hectare (nett)
Rustenberg square, Rondebosch 
(four to five storeys):
107 dwelling units 
per hectare (nett) 
Marine Circle, 
table View beachfront:
250 dwelling units
per hectare (nett)
Springfield
terrace, Woodstock
(three storeys)
166 dwelling units
per hectare (nett)
 Urban densities in other cities
London (Warwick square): 125–200 dwelling units
per hectare (nett)
Amsterdam (old Quarter): 75–100 dwelling units
per hectare (nett)
Mykonos (Greece): 200 dwelling units
per hectare (nett)
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 68
2.6.2 São Paulo, Brazil
Figure 2.13 Density management in Sao Paulo, Brazil 
With a population of about 9.4 million (1991) living in an area of 149,300 ha and a density of 63 in 
habitants/ha, São Paulo is one of the largest cities in the world. Greater São Paulo, with 38  
municipalities, was expected to reach 25 million inhabitants in the beginning of the next century. In 
the period 1989 – 92, the city experienced an innovative planning process related to density.
The increase of building densities in residential and non-residential areas was one of the back bones 
of a strategic urban development plan based on the argument that there are strong relations between 
the production of built-up space, densification and demand for infrastructure. A careful analysis and 
inventory of the different zones of the city was carried out to detect where the existing infrastructure 
and services could cope with increased density of land use. A series of indicators were developed to 
establish the relationship between the accepted capacity of the available infrastructure and services, 
and the built-up area. The existing spare capacity must be translated into potential square meters of 
built-up space. This densification potential was called “stock of space”.
Transport, road, water, drainage, electricity and sewage networks were systematically assessed. 
Transport deserved special attention since the location of origins and destinations of journeys are 
simultaneously affected by any change in land use. The road system of the city centre was congested 
and almost saturated with traffic towards the inner city, up to 2000 vehicles during the peak hour of 
the morning. Many passengers commuted: 30,000 passengers during the morning peak. The drainage 
system showed an indirect relationship with density. Increasing building densities made the urban 
surface impermeable, bringing flood risks. The water, sewage and electricity systems were assessed 
through their three sub systems: production (capture, treatment, generation), main distribution 
(primary network, collectors, sub stations) and local net works. The plan utilized the concept of floor 
area ratio called locally coefficient of use/maximization – CAU (Coeficiente de Aproveitamento 
Unico). The plan adopted CAU = 1 for the whole urban area of the city as a unique floor area ratio. 
This means that the building might reach a built up area equal to the area of the plot.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 69
The CAU index relates the built-up area to the plot size and determines the area for which the building 
right is free of charge. The CAU was used as a starting point to define the zones possible to have increases 
in density (CAU 1) and those which do not fulfil the criteria. The guiding principle for densification was 
the availability of infrastructure and their capacity to absorb consumption increases. In general, the urban 
areas with poor water supply, lacking sewage, and with insufficient roads and inadequate public transport 
were defined as areas where it was not possible to increase densities. In an area where the limit of the 
infrastructure was almost reached, the plan would stimulate diversification of land use and guide the land 
occupation densification. The zone presenting a low density of power, roads, public transport and a high 
stock of development space was defined as an area for potential densification.
The crucial innovation of the plan was the management of the stock of the space. An information system 
was established to monitor the registration, processing and periodic dissemination of changes in use, 
density and occupation throughout the 15 densification zones.
The municipality would act as a bank. The stock of space would correspond to credit in infrastructure, and 
the consumption of space in the form of built-up area would represent the debts of the client, individuals 
and private developers. The local government linked this potential for increasing building densities with 
mechanisms to foster housing production. 
To stimulate social housing production, a partnership based urban operations called inter linked and social 
interest operations, similar to the floor area ratio have also been used. A municipal housing fund is linked 
to these operations and becomes an urban management tool to promote the most desirable physical and 
functional organization of the city. The operations are used when private land or public land has been 
occupied by unauthorized settlements. In both cases, the owner requests a change of the CAU of the plot 
where the settlement is situated or of another plot he owns elsewhere in the city. The land is carefully 
valued before and after interventions are carried out. Infrastructure and building costs are implemented by 
the owner who pays with housing units to the local government and receives in exchange densification 
possibilities or development rights on the plot where the project takes place or in another plot he owns.
Source: Based on Acioly and Davidson, 1996
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 70
2.7 Legal Frameworks, Policies and Institutional Frameworks
2.7.1 Legal Frameworks and Policies 
i) Constitution of Kenya
The constitution addresses various factors on housing and sustainable development. These 
factors are addressed in various chapters. Chapter 42 stipulates that every person has the right to 
a clean and healthy environment which includes the right to have the environment protected for 
the benefit of present and future generations through legislative and other measures. Chapter 43 
deals with economic and social rights which include the right to accessible and adequate 
housing, and to reasonable standards of sanitation; and clean and safe water in adequate 
quantities. Moreover, chapter 69 (1) directs the state to ensure sustainable exploitation, 
utilisation, management and conservation of the environment and natural resources, and ensure 
the equitable sharing of the accruing benefits; and further to eliminate processes and activities 
that are likely to endanger the environment. Chapter 10 (2) (d) lists sustainable development 
under the national values and principles of governance which bind all state organs, officers and 
public officers.
ii) Physical Planning Act 1996
Development planning in Kenya is guided by the Physical Planning Act 1996.  It provides for the 
preparation, implementation and enforcement of physical development plans, and mechanisms 
that should guide and enforce development control by local authorities and NEMA.
The act also provides a framework for conflict resolution through liaison committees and
mechanisms for community participation in planning. Section 29 directs that subject to the 
provisions of this Act, each local authority shall have the power to control development-
(a) to prohibit or control the use and development of land and buildings in the interests of proper 
and orderly development of its area; 
(b) to control or prohibit the subdivision of land or existing plots into smaller areas; 
(c) to consider and approve all development applications and grant all development permissions; 
(d) to ensure the proper execution and implementation of approved physical development plans; 
(e) to formulate by-laws to regulate zoning in respect of use and density of development; and 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 71
(f) to reserve and maintain all the land planned for open spaces, parks, urban forests and green 
belts in accordance with the approved physical development plan.
Further, according to section 30 (1), no person shall carry out development within the area of a 
local authority without a development permission granted by the local authority under section 33.
The City Council of Nairobi that is therefore mandated to formulate and enforce development 
controls in Kileleshwa but it has limited capacity.
iii) Public Health Act (Cap. 242)
The Act primarily aims to control and regulate conditions that are likely to be injurious or 
dangerous to human health. Part IX, section 115, of the Act states that no person/institution shall 
cause nuisance or condition liable to be injurious or dangerous to human health. Section 116 
requires that Local Authorities take all lawful, necessary and reasonably practicable measures to 
maintain their jurisdiction clean and sanitary to prevent occurrence of nuisance or condition 
liable to be injurious or dangerous to human health. Such nuisance or conditions are defined 
under section 118 and include nuisances caused by accumulation of materials or refuse which in 
the opinion of the medical officer of health is likely to harbour rats or other vermin. The 
environmental management plan (EMP) advices the proponent on safety and health aspects, 
potential impacts, personnel responsible for implementation and monitoring, frequency of 
monitoring, and estimated cost.
The public health department that is mandated to enforce this act has not been able to enforce it 
so that pollution levels particularly to the wet lands can be mitigated.
iv) Sessional paper no 3 of 2004 on National Housing Policy
The policy has made several provisions with regard to shelter provision. National Housing Policy 
as articulated in Sessional Paper No. 3 of 2004 addresses the deteriorating housing conditions 
countrywide and aims to bridge the shortfall of housing stock arising from demand that far 
surpasses supply, particularly in urban areas. The policy under section 41(a,k, l)  aims to ensure
that legislative and regulatory instruments governing land-use planning, administration and 
management are regularly reviewed and harmonised to promote housing development and ensure 
development control is upheld and intensified to avoid illegal developments and construction;  
encourage where possible settlement patterns that minimize the cost of providing infrastructure 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 72
and other services; and facilitate re-planning and re-development of existing housing estates that 
do not provide for maximum permissible or highest and best use of land. 
v) Urban Areas and Cities Act, 2011
One of the principal legislations that are going to govern the management, operations and 
delimitation of urban cities and urban areas under the constitution is urban Areas and Cities Act, 
2011. The chief mandate of this Act is to guide classification of urban areas, governance and 
management of urban areas and participation of the residence in the governance of urban areas. 
The critical bit of this Act is on governance and management of urban areas (Section, 41). 
Moreover, section 41 addresses the issue of integrated development planning. Under this, the 
board in collaboration with other entities is allowed to formulate development plans for urban 
areas.  
vi) The Building By laws
The Building Code ( The Local Government (Adoptive By-laws)) Order 1968 envisage 
buildings that satisfy conditions related to: submission and approval of building plans (clauses 5, 
7, 9 and 10); siting and space about buildings,  means of access, external passages,  building line, 
access to plot and frontage (clauses 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 25, 26); use of building materials, 
testing of materials and protection of persons and property (clauses 33, 34 and37); drainage of 
sites, preparation of sites, and identification of plot boundaries (38,39 and 42); provision of 
refuse disposal, water supply, ventilation of buildings, height of rooms, sewage and waste water 
disposal, fire escape considerations among others. 
These standards are rigid and do not address the emerging technologies of construction. 
Enforcement of this code has not been effective.
vii) Kenya Vision 2030
Kenya Vision 2030 is new long-term development blueprint for the country. The aim of Kenya 
Vision 2030 is “the globally competitive and prosperous country with a high quality of life by 
2030.” It aims at transforming Kenya into “a newly industrialising, middle income country 
providing a high quality of life to all its citizens in a clean and secure environment”  The Vision 
is anchored on three key pillars: Economic; Social; and Political Governance. One critical area
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 73
that is examined is on housing and urbanisation. Kenya Vision 2030 aims to provide the 
country’s population with adequate and decent housing in a sustainable environment. The 2030 
Vision also aspires for a country firmly interconnected through a network of roads, railways, 
ports, airports, water and sanitation facilities and telecommunications. Furthermore, to ensure
that the main projects under the economic pillar are implemented, investment in the nation’s
Infrastructure will be given the highest priority.
viii) Environmental Management and Coordination Act, 1999 
An ACT of Parliament to provide for the establishment of an appropriate legal and institutional 
framework for the management of the environment and for the matters connected therewith and 
incidental thereto. Section 1 outlines general principles like every person in Kenya is entitled to a 
clean and healthy environment and had the duty to safeguard and enhance the environment. The 
next is on environmental planning. The act stipulates that there should be national environment 
action plan. Further it deals with protection and conservation of the environment. The greatest 
tool that this act provides for is environmental impact assessment.
There has been weak enforcement of this act due to a number of reasons. For example there has 
been inconsistency in terms of provisions of riparian reserve. In this case the act provides a 
different measurement while other acts also stipulate different one. Thus, there is need to 
synchronise these related acts. 
ix) Water Act of 2002
The Act provides for the management, conservation, use and control of water resources and for 
the acquisition and regulation of rights to use water. It further provides for the regulations and 
management of water supply and sewerage services. The Act provides for the regulation of river
lines, catchments areas, and protection of wells and springs.
2.7.2 Institutional Framework
i) Ministry of Land, Housing and Urban Development
This is the government agency responsible for providing policy direction, national standards and 
coordination of all matters concerning lands, housing and urban development. The agency in 
responsible for putting in place policies and initiating laws that ensure sustainable land 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 74
management, promote sustainable housing for all and foster orderly urban development in the 
country. Its mission is therefore to facilitate the sustainable and orderly management of land and 
improve on housing conditions for socio-economic development.
The mandate encompasses policy making, standard setting, national planning, regulation, 
coordination, inspection, monitoring and back-up technical support relating to lands, housing and 
urban development and to promote and foster sustainable human settlement and manage works 
on government buildings.
ii) Ministry Devolution and Planning
The Devolution and Planning Ministry was formed through Executive Order No. 2 of May 2013 
released by the President which lists functions and responsibilities for the new Ministry. The 
ministry is responsible for over 15 semi-autonomous government agencies, 10 constitutional 
commissions and independent Offices. These include National Development Planning and 
implementation of Vision 2030. In addition to Vision 2030, the Nairobi metro 2030 is a 
document that was published in 2008 by the Kenya Government as a strategy document outlining 
how the government will prepare and enforce an integrated spatial growth and development 
strategy within the Nairobi metropolitan region. This involves actualization of integrated 
strategic programmes for the provision of social, economic and infrastructural services within the 
metropolis.
iii) Nairobi City County
The City Council of Nairobi was created by an Act of parliament, Cap 265 of the laws of Kenya 
to provide essential services that includes water, sewer, refuse collection, and public safety to 
residents of the city. It is now under the Nairobi County headed by an executive Governor who is 
elected on five year terms. Governance and management of urban areas and cities is guided by 
The Urban Areas and Cities Act of 2011. Functions of urban areas and cities include preparation 
and implementation of integrated development plans. Section 36.(1) stipulates that every city and 
municipality established under this Act shall operate within the framework of integrated
development planning which shall be the basis for-
i) the preparation of environmental management plans;
ii) the preparation of valuation rolls for property taxation;
iii) provision of physical and social infrastructure and transportation;
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 75
iv) preparation of annual strategic plans for a city or municipality;
v) disaster preparedness and response;
vi) overall delivery of service including provision of water, electricity, health, 
telecommunications and solid waste management; and
vii) the preparation of a geographic information system for a city or municipality;
iv) National Environment Management Authority (NEMA)
The National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) is established under the 
Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA) No. 8 of 1999, as the principal 
instrument of government in the implementation of all policies relating to the environment. It 
therefore mandated to safeguards and enhances the quality of the environment through 
coordination, research, facilitation and enforcement, while encouraging responsible individual, 
corporate and collective participation towards sustainable development. NEMA came up with a 
strategic plan for the year 2010-2013which builds on the national priorities as spelt out in Vision 
2030 and it contains definite robust programmes and actions that focus on ways and means of 
improving our environment. 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 76
2.8 Conceptual Framework
Figure 2.14
Source: Author, 2013
Urban Housing Densification
Environmental scanning
· Urbanization pressure
· Economic and Market forces
· Infrastructure availability
· Compact city policies 
· Convenience
Vertical densification
· Increase in number of storeys
· Increase in Plot Ratios
· Land use change from single to 
multiple dwelling units
Horizontal densification
· Land subdivision
· Increase in Plot 
Coverage
Population density
· Population growth
· Increase in Households
· Age and gender
NATURE
CAUSES
IMPLICATIONS
a) Pressure on infrastructure:
· Traffic congestion,
· Water shortage
· Power shortage
· Sewer blockage
b) Environmental hazards:
· Air, water, noise pollution,
· Encroachment on riparian areas
· Lack of privacy
c) Inadequate amenities:
· Diminished open recreational space,
· Insufficient community facilities
d) Land use conflict
e) Reduced land values
f) Insecurity
LOW IMPACT INTERVENTIONS
a) Effective enforcement of planning regulations
b) Density control ( Du/ ha, Plot ratios, Plot 
Coverage ratios, Green Ground cover ratios)
c) Infrastructure upgrading
d) Integration of green designs and strategies:
· Energy efficiency
· Water efficiency
· Waste management
· Green infrastructure
· Protection of green spaces& corridors
· Efficient transport system
· Regulation of impervious paving
NO INTERVENTION
SUSTAINABLE HOUSING DENSIFICATION
· Urban vitality
· Optimal use of resources
· Easy access to services
· High urban productivity
UNSUSTAINABLE HOUSING DENSIFICATION
· Urban decay
· Crowding
· Low land values
· Low productivity
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 77
The above diagram shows a conceptual framework developed to aid in understanding the issues 
under study. The first step in understanding the urban housing densification is environmental 
scanning to establish the causes, nature and implications of densification. Urbanization pressure, 
market forces, infrastructure availability and enabling policies, legislations and regulations 
normally influence neighbourhoods towards high densities. The process normally leads to 
increased population and household density in the area, and increased dwelling units expressed 
spatially in form of vertical growth and horizontal compaction patterns of development.
The densification process results in increased pressure on infrastructure, environmental hazards, 
land use conflict, reduced land values and insecurity. This phenomenon if allowed to continue 
unchecked leads to urban decay, crowding, erosion of land values, low economic productivity 
and thus unsustainable development.
Situational analysis will therefore call for interventions to address the identified causes, nature 
and negative implications with a view to formulate policies and strategies for sustainable housing 
densification. Selected instruments and tools should be reviewed on a regular basis through 
further analysis to assess effectiveness in addressing densification challenges. The ultimate goal 
is to guide developments towards enhancing urban vitality, optimizing use of scarce resources, 
increasing access to services and increasing economic productivity.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 78
 CHAPTER 3
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY AREA
3.1 Introduction
The city of Nairobi, like many other major urban centres in Kenya, owes its birth and growth to 
the Uganda Railway (K’Akumu, 2002). The town was first settled in 1896 as a transport depot 
with the clean water and cool climate being main attraction ( Gathuri, 2007) . The site was also 
halfway between Mombasa and Port Florence (now Kisumu).The railhead reached Nairobi in 
May 1899 on its route to the present day Kisumu that was then part of what is Uganda. The 
moving of the railway headquarters from Mombasa to Nairobi by its chief engineer, Sir George 
Whitehouse resulted in the subsequent growth of Nairobi as a commercial and business hub of 
the then British East Africa protectorate (Situma, 1992).
The colonial administration which had established their administration base in Machakos also 
moved to Nairobi in 1899 ( Gathuri, 2007). By 1900 Nairobi had already become a large and 
flourishing place with the settlement consisting mainly of the railway buildings and separate 
residential quarters for Europeans and Indians. The latter were mainly the labourers employed on 
the construction of the railway. There was practically no African Settlement at the time      ( 
Akumu & Olima, 2007) By 1901 the population had grown to about 8,000 people occupying an 
area of about 3.84 Sq.Km.  (Awalla 2007).
In 1900, the colonial government published the Nairobi Municipal Committee (NMC) 
regulations. These defined the urban centre as ‘‘the area within a radius of one and a half miles 
from the offices of the sub-commissioner of the then Ukamba Province’’ (Morgan, 1967, p. 102). 
A small number of settlers had began settling in the urban centre at the time, particularly in 
Kabete and Westlands ( Akumu & Olima, 2007). 
With the construction of the railway in progress, it became essential to designate a mid-way site 
where a well-equipped maintenance depot would be built. When the railroad arrived in Nairobi, 
the Chief Engineer acting on recommendation of the engineer in charge of the site selection 
team, Guildford Molesworth, exercised powers vested in him under the Land Acquisition Act of 
India (1894) and obtained for the use of the railway authority the whole plain south of Nairobi 
river swamp to the Ngong River. In addition, a strip of land on both sides of railway line, 3.2km 
wide was deemed to be railway land. The designated land areas came under absolute ownership 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 79
and control of the railway authority according to the statute. In 1907 Nairobi was made the 
capital of Kenya. Later in 1950, Nairobi was made a city ( Akumu & Olima, 2007).
By 1909 much of the internal structure of Nairobi, especially the road network in the Central 
Business District (CBD) was already established. In 1927, the boundary of Nairobi was extended 
to cover 30 square miles or 2537 ha as a result mainly of the rapid growth of the urban centre 
both in terms of population and infrastructure ( Akumu & Olima, 2007). 
From 1928 to 1963, this boundary remained the same with only minor additions and excisions
taking place. In 1963 the boundary of Nairobi was extended to cover an area of approximately 
266 square miles or 68,945 ha ( Akumu & Olima, 2007).  Since then there has been progressive 
increase both in population and the physical boundary to its current population of over 3 milion 
people in an administrative core area of about 696 Sq.Km. The entire Nairobi Metropolis is 
about 32,000 Sq.Km (Nairobi Metro 2030,2008:XV). 
Table 3.1 Population of Nairobi between 1906-1999
Year Area(Ha) Population Increase  (%)
1906 1813 11,512 -
1928 2537 29,864 159.4
1931 2537 47,919 60.5
1936 2537 49,600 3.5
1944 2537 108,900 119.6
1948 8315 118,976 9.3
1963 68,945 342,764 28.5
1969 68,945 509,286 48.6
1979 68,945 827,755 62.5
1989 68,945 1,324,570 62.6
1999 68,945 2, 143,254 55.2
Source: Adapted from  Akumu & Olima, 2007
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 80
3.2  Emergence and growth of residential segregation in Nairobi
When Nairobi was made the capital city of the then British Protectorate in 1905 replacing 
Mombasa, it attracted an influx of British settlers due to its cool climate free from malaria 
mosquito. Certain spatial patterns also began to emerge once the railway authority located its 
headquarters in Nairobi ( Akumu & Olima, 2007).  For instance, the railway station, a shopping 
centre and subordinate staff housing were established on level land with black cotton soils. 
Senior railway officers put their homes up on the hill to the west. European colonial officials also 
established their homes on the hill. When the East African protectorate headquarters was moved 
from Mombasa to Nairobi in 1905, Sir Donald Stewart, the Commissioner, himself occupied the 
house of the former chief railway engineer at the hill (White, Silbermann, & Anderson, 1948). 
All Europeans who lived in this urban centre created their residences away from Asians and 
Africans. This pattern soon led to exclusive European residential settlements at Muthaiga, Upper 
Parklands, Westlands, Loresho, Kileleshwa and Kilimani, among others. Meanwhile, part of the 
Asian population that had been discharged from railway employment established shops not far 
from the railway station, an area that came to be known as the Indian Bazaar. The Asian 
buildings were used both for business and as living quarters ( Akumu & Olima, 2007).  The few 
Africans who worked for the railway were given subordinate housing while others lived in 
shanty villages in the eastern part of
Nairobi (Obudho, 1987).
The period between 1905 and 1950s witnessed major social stratification in Nairobi and the city 
sorted itself into distinct residential segregation zones. The European settlers moved to the 
greeny areas on the western side of the city characterised by very rich tropical vegetation, well 
drained red soils and large plots where they built large expansive single storey houses. These 
include posh areas of Kilimani, Kileleshwa, Westlands and Loresho, The East African Railways 
Corporation at that time acquired a lot of land in these prime locations and built many houses for 
its expatriate managers. Most of these houses built during that period still dot the exclusive 
neighbourhoods of Kileleshwa, Kilimani, Spring valley and Upper hill occupying huge parcels of 
land ranging from one to five acres. The Africans on the other hand moved to Eastlands, while 
Asians moved to Indian Bazaar area on Central Nairobi. 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 81
In 1912, owing to three plague outbreaks in the Indian Bazaar, Simson Commission was formed 
which recommended racial segregation with Indians, Africans and Europeans living in separate 
areas.(Gathuri, 2007).
3.3 Study Area
The study area is Kileleshwa sub-location  in Kileleshwa location of Westlands constituency.  It 
covers an area of approx 5.2 sq.Km with a population of  16,802 according to 2009 population 
census. There are 4,592 households and a population density of 3,210.
Kileleshwa falls under Nairobi City Council’s Planning Zone 4 which covers Spring Valley, 
Riverside Drive, Kileleshwa, Kilimani, Thompson and Woodley/ Ngong road.
Map  3.1 Map of Kenya showing location of Nairobi
 
Source: GOK, 2012
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 82
Map  3.2 Map of Nairobi
Source: GOK, 2012
Plate 3.1 Upcoming apartments within study area
Source: Author
Source: Author
KILELESHWA
Along Kandara Rd
Along Mandera Rd
Along Kandara Rd
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 83
Map  3.3 Map showing study area
Source: Nairobi City Council (2011)
Plate 3.0-1 Pre-independence single storey houses along Mandera Road
Source: NHC, 2009Source: NHC,2009
Kirichwa Ndogo River
Kirichwa Kubwa River
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 84
Table 3.2 Population distribution by sex, number of households ,area, density and 
constituencies
Male Female Total Households Area in Sq.Km Density
Kenya 19,192,458 19,417,639 38,610,097 8,767,954 581,313.2 66
Nairobi 1,605,230 1,533,139 3,138,369 985,016 695.1 4515
Westlands 124,748 122,354 247,102 75,427 97.4 2538
Kileleshwa
(Location)
12,207 14,995 27,202 7,743 9.0 3009
Kileleshwa
(Sub-Location)
7,389 9,413 16,802 4,592 5.2 3210
Source: Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (2010)
3.4 Climate and weather
Climatic conditions of the study area compares favourably to that of the wider Nairobi city. 
At 1,795 metres (5,889 ft) above sea level, Nairobi enjoys a moderate climate. Nairobi has a 
subtropical highland climate. The altitude makes for some cool evenings, especially in the 
June/July season when the temperature can drop to 10 °C (50 °F). The sunniest and warmest part 
of the year is from December to March, when temperatures average the mid-twenties during the 
day. The mean maximum temperature for this period is 24 °C (75 °F)
Table 3.3 Monthly average temperatures, sunshine, rainfall and humidity for Nairobi
Source: www.nairobicity.go.ke
Summary of average yearly weather data for Nairobi
Low temp 
(degrees C) 
High temp 
(degrees C)
Sunshine
(hours)
Rainfall (mm) Humidity
(am)
Humidity
(pm)
Jan 12 25 9 38 74 44
Feb 13 26 9 64 74 40
Mar 14 25 9 125 81 45
April 14 24 7 211 88 56
May 13 22 6 158 88 62
June 12 21 6 46 89 60
July 11 21 4 15 86 58
Aug 11 21 4 23 86 56
Sept 11 24 6 31 82 45
Oct 13 24 7 53 82 43
Nov 13 23 7 109 86 53
Dec 13 23 8 86 81 53
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 85
The city is located at 1°17•S 36°49•E and occupies 696 square kilometres (270 sq mi)
3.5 Zoning policies
The first strategic policy for Nairobi was contained in 1948 Nairobi Master Plan  (Omwenga, 
2008). The Nairobi Master Plan for the colonial capital (1948) was prepared by Thorton White 
and was inspired by the colonial planning approach. The plan based on the European model of 
urban form advocated for racial segregation (Obudho, 1997). The housing areas for Europeans 
and Asians were defined while Africans were to be housed next to areas designated for 
industries. The plan was prepared when the population of Nairobi was 109,000 and with an 
anticipated growth rate of 5% it was anticipated that by 1975 the population of the city would 
grow to 270,000 (Gathuri, 2007).
The second and last strategic plan was the 1973 Nairobi Metropolitan Growth Strategy which 
lapsed in the year 2000(NCC, 2011). There have been several sectoral development plans 
thereafter but the same target specific action zones and are not well coordinated.
The 2006 Local Physical Development Plan for Zone 3, 4 and 5 is the current policy guideline 
that covers Kileleshwa, Kilimani, Woodley, Parklands, Westlands, Lavington, Thompson, 
Loresho, Riverside and Spring Valley. The policy review provided for the development of high 
rise block of multi-family residential flat units in the areas that were formerly for single family 
housing per plot (Omwenga, 2008).
3.5.1 Planning policy
The study area is within Zone 4 of Nairobi according to Nairobi City Development Ordinances 
and Zones (2006). The city of Nairobi is divided into 21 zones. Zoning according to NCC (2011) 
is the separation of land uses in order to avoid incompatible developments that can course harm 
to human life. It is the physical division of urban community into districts or zones for the 
purpose of regulating the use of land and buildings, height and bulk buildings, plot coverage and 
density population. The main purpose of zoning is therefore to direct and regulate development 
or redevelopment of a town in appropriate directions and ensure proper uses of land and 
buildings with a view to creating a healthy, efficient and stimulating living environment.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 86
Table 3.4 Zone 4 planning policy
Zone Areas 
Covered 
GC (%) PR 
(%) 
Types of Development Allowed Min Area 
(Ha) 
4 Spring Valley 
Riverside 
Kileleshwa 
Kilimani 
Thompson 
Woodley
35(s)
25(u)
100 (s) 
25(u) 
Residential (Apartments allowed 
on sewer only) – Four Storey 
max. 
0.05 
Source: NCC (2006)
The current development standards are based on 2006 study where walk up apartments on 
Ground Coverage (GC) and Plot Ratio (PR) of 35% and 100% respectively are allowed on areas 
within the sewerage network. However the intense pressure of development on the ground is
such that the growth has by far outpaced the 2006 planning standards. Many developments are 
beyond the stipulated policy in terms of block heights and dwelling units in a unit piece of land.
Nairobi City Council later commissioned another study in 2011 aimed at generating further 
knowledge concerning the urban change processes in the Zones 3, 4, 5 and their implications for 
the city planning and sustainable urban development. This study which is still in draft has 
identified a need to rezone the area further due to among other factors the increasing pressure on 
available land and high cost per unit area of land which justifies the need for further densification 
(CCN, 2011). The 2011draft study report is of the view that the existing standards for the area 
are quite conservative and further proposes a rezoning to enhance higher densities.  The draft 
study report therefore proposes enhancement of development standards for the study area to G.C. 
of 35% and P.R. of between 100 to 200% (CCN, 2011).  The study further identified several 
challenges within the study area, which include low infrastructure capacity, missing community, 
social and commercial facilities and traffic congestion among others.
The proposed structure according to the draft 2011 Land Use study Report has zone 4 split 
further into 17 sub zones. The study areas fall under sub zone 4D1 and 4 D2.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 87
Table 3.5 Proposed zone 4 spatial policy framework as per 2011 study
SUB 
ZONE
AREA/DESCRIPTION GC PR MIN 
AREA 
(HA) 
TYPE OF 
DEVELOPME
NT 
POLICY 
ISSUES/REQUIREMENTS 
4A1 Peponi road, General 
mathenge rd, General 
mathenge lane, canalized 
stream, Brookeside rd, 
Lower kabete rd. 
35 
35 
1.5 
1.0 
0.2 Ha 
0.05 Ha 
Apartments, 
Single Dwelling 
Use of Solar Energy 
Water Recycling 
Separation of waste 
Rainwater harvesting 
Provision of a lift 
2 cars per apartment 
4A2 General mathenge drive, 
boundary zones 3 &4, 
mathare river, brookeside 
road, general mathenge 
drive. 
25 2.5 0.2 Ha Single Dwelling On site sanitation 
4B1 All first row plots fronting 
Waiyaki way on either 
side where there is a slip 
road to All Africa 
Confrence of Churches 
(AACC). 
50 2.5 0.2 Ha Offices Discourage spread of 
commercial along Waiyaki 
way 
Same conditions of green 
building to apply 
Observe acceleration and de-
acceleration lanes 
4B2 
s Lower Kabete Rd, 
Karuna Rd, school lane, 
boundary zone 4B1, 
Muguga green primary, 
muguga green rd, 
brookeside rd, 
boundary 4&5, 
canalized river, 
brookeside rd. 
s Ring road, boundary 
4B1, St. Micheal road, 
boundary 4&5, Nairobi 
river, ring road. 
35 
35 
1.0 
2.00 
0.05 Ha
0.2 Ha 
Single Dwelling 
Apartments 
Use of Solar Energy 
Water Recycling 
Separation of waste 
Rainwater harvesting 
Provision of a lift 
2 cars per apartment 
20% Greenery. 
4C Nairobi River, Ring rd, 
Kirichwa Ndogo, 
Boundary 4&5, Kirichwa 
ndogo, ring rd 
35 
25
35
1.0 
2.5 
1.5
Town houses 
Single dwelling 
Apartments 
No more Office 
Developments along River 
side drive 
Rehabilitation of the riparian. 
Green building conditions 
apply. 
4D1 Kirichwa Ndogo, ring 
road, St. Georges P. 
School, Kirichwa Kubwa, 
Mazeras rd, migoiri rd, 
Nyeri rd, Gatundu rd, 
boundary 4&5, Kirichwa 
ndogo. 
35 
35 
2.00 
1.00 
0.3 Ha 
0.03 Ha 
Apartments 
Town houses/ 
Single dwelling. 
Riparian regulation 
Above conditions of green 
building apply. 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 88
4D4 Bernard Estate 35 0.75 0.3Ha Residential 
Single Dwelling 
No apartments 
4E Galana Rd, Chania Rd, 
Chaka Rd, Lenana Rd, 
Agwings Kodhek rd, 
Menelik rd, Chania Ave., 
Chaka rd, Lennana rd. 
From Chaka rd/argwings 
kodhek rd junction along 
argwings road to 
Hurlingham shopping 
centre: All plots fronting 
the road on both sides. 
Hurlingham shopping 
centre 
50 
50 
50 
3.0 
2.5 
2.5 
0.2 Ha 
0.2 Ha 
0.2 Ha 
Commercial 
Offices 
Commercial 
Above conditions for 
commercial areas apply 
4F Lenana Rd, Rose Avenue, 
St Georges schools, 
Woodland Ave., Dennis 
Pritt Road, Zone 4 
boundary, State hse Ave., 
Ralph Bunch rd, Lenana 
rd. 
35 
50 
1.0 
0.75 
0.2 Ha 
0.03 Ha 
Single Dwelling 
Apartments:(2 
Floor & an 
attic) 
Special planning area: 
maintain existing character 
4G Dennis Pritt Rd, St. 
Georges schools, 
Kirichwa Kubwa, Ole 
Odume Rd, Ngong Rd, 
city mortuary round 
about, valley road, Ralph 
Bunche rd, Denis Pritt rd. 
35 
35 
1.5 
1.0 
0.2 Ha 
0.03 Ha 
Apartments 
Single dwelling 
Above Conditions of Green 
Building apply 
20% Greenery 
Onsite parking 
Rehabilitation of riparian 
4G1 Ole Odume Rd, Kirichwa 
Kubwa, Naivasha Rd, 
Riara Rd, Sweedish 
School, Naivasha rd, Ole 
odume rd 
35 
35 
2.0 
1.0 
0.2 Ha 
0.05 Ha 
Apartments 
Single dwelling 
Above Conditions apply 
Maximum 6 levels 
Rehabilitation of riparian 
4G2 Riara Rd, Naivasha Rd up 
to the Swedish school 
boundary, Riara rd. 
Includes Dagoretti 
commercial node. 
50 2.5 0.2Ha Commercial Need for Detailed Planning 
of the Dagoretti Commercial 
Node. 
Conditions of Commercial 
node similar to Westlands 
CBD apply. 
SUB 
ZONE
AREA/DESCRIPTION GC PR MIN 
AREA 
(HA) 
TYPE OF 
DEVELOPME
NT 
POLICY 
ISSUES/REQUIREMENTS 
4D2 Kirichwa Ndogo, 
Gatundu Rd, Nyeri rd, 
Gitanga rd, Muthangari 
drive, Kirichwa ndogo 
35 
35 
1.0 
1.5 
0.05 Ha 
0.2 Ha 
Single Dwelling 
Apartments 
Above conditions of Green 
building 
Rehabilitation of riparian 
4D3 Gitanga Rd, Boundary 4, , 
Methodist Guest House, 
Kirichwa Kubwa 
35 
35 
1.0 
0.2 
0.03 Ha 
0.2 Ha 
Residential 
Single Dwelling 
Apartments 
As above 
Rehabilitation of riparian 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 89
4H1 Ngong Rd, Joseph 
Kangethe, NPC Woodley, 
Police lines, Along NCC 
deport, Joseph Kangethe 
centre, Along boundary of 
Toi primary schl and Moi 
Girls, Kibera drive, 
kabarnet rd, Ngong rd. 
35 
35 
1.5 
1.0 
0.2 Ha 
0.05 Ha 
Apartments 
Single Dwelling 
Maximum 4 levels 
Conditions of green buildings 
apply. 
4H2 Jamhuri Phase II: Ngong 
rd, Joseph Kangetherd, 
Police line, railway line, 
boundary zone 4, Ngong 
road. 
35 1.5 Existing 
Plots 
Residential Maximum 4 levels 
4I Kibera drive, Kabarnet 
Rd, Boundary of zone 4, 
Kibera drive. 
35 
35 
1.5 
0.75 
0.2 Ha
0.05 Ha 
Apartments -4 
levels maxm. 
Single Dwelling 
Maintain existing character 
All other conditions apply 
Source: NCC (2011)
SUB 
ZONE
AREA/DESCRIPTION GC PR MIN 
AREA 
(HA) 
TYPE OF 
DEVELOPME
NT 
POLICY 
ISSUES/REQUIREMENTS 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 90
CHAPTER 4
EXTENT AND NATURE OF DENSIFICATION 
4.0 Introduction 
This chapter presents the findings of the study on sustainable housing densification in 
Kileleshwa in Nairobi, Kenya. The data has been presented using tables and graphs with 
interpretation provided. Findings from open-ended questionnaires were also presented in prose. 
In the case of data from the interview guides, content analysis was used to present the findings in 
a prose form in reflection of the relevant themes.
4.1 Extent of Housing Densification
The housing developments in Kileleshwa area which was an exclusive European housing zone 
were characterized by low density and high income single dwelling units. However the scenario 
in this area has changed rapidly over the last few years with noticeable change from low density 
high income housing to medium income high density residential neighbourhood characterised by 
walk up apartments and office blocks. The area has limited commercial and community facilities 
and the infrastructural services designed for the initial low density land use have not experienced the 
necessary expansion in line with the dynamics of growth happening in the area.
Plate 4.1 Upcoming apartments in the study area
Source: Author 2012
Along Githunguri Rd
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 91
Table 4.1: Population Distribution by Sex, Number of Households, Area and Density in 
2009
Male Female Total Households Area in Sq.Km Density
Kenya 19,192,458 19,417,639 38,610,097 8,767,954 581,313.2 66
Nairobi 1,605,230 1,533,139 3,138,369 985,016 695.1 4515
Westlands 124,748 122,354 247,102 75,427 97.4 2538
Kileleshwa
(Location)
12,207 14,995 27,202 7,743 9.0 3009
Kileleshwa
(Sub-Location)
7,389
(44%)
9,413
(56%)
16,802 4,592 5.2 3210
Source: Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (2010)
The current population density for Kileleshwa sub location stands at 3210 persons per sq.Km (or 
883 households per sq.Km) compared to 2538 persons per sq.Km ( or 774 households per 
sq.Km) for Westlands constituency and 4515 persons per sq.Km( or 1417 households per 
sq.Km) for Nairobi. The population density for the entire country stands at 66 persons per 
sq.Km and 15 households per sq.Km
Table 4.2: Population and Households Growth trends in Kileleshwa Sublocation
Year Male Female Total Households Area in Sq.Km Density
1999 5,992 5,977 11,969 3,361 5.2 2302
2009 7,389 9,413 16,802 4,592 5.2 3210
% Growth 23.3% 57.5% 40.4% 36.6% 39.4%
Source: Based on Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (2001 & 2010)
From Table 4.2, Kileleshwa has witnessed a total population growth of 40.4% for the 10 year 
period  and an increase in number of households by 36.6%. The population density has also 
increased by 39.4% over the same period.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi
Plate 4.2 Section of the study area in March 2002
Source: Google Earth
Detached single dwelling 
units
Detached single
dwelling units
Detached single dwelling 
units Detached single dwelling units
Kileleshwa Pri.      
School
Kileleshwa 
Police St.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 93
Plate 4.3 Section of the study area in February 2012
Source: Google Earth
High density apartments
High density apartments High density apartments
Kileleshwa Pri.      
School
Kileleshwa 
Police St.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 94
4.1.1 Gender 
The study sought to establish the gender characteristics of the population.
Figure 4.1 Gender of the respondents
Source: Field survey, 2013
From the findings, 65% of the respondents who participated in the study were female while the 
rest (35%) were male. The 2009 census data for Kileleshwa indicate females to be 56% while 
male comprise 44% of the population (KNBS, 2010). This illustrates that there are more female 
than male living in Kileleshwa.
4.1.2 Age 
The study sought to find out the distribution of the population by age. 
Table 4.2 Age of the respondents
Frequency Percent
below 30 years 29 39.2
30-40 years 44 59.5
51-60 years 1 1.4
Total 74 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2013
According to the results in table 4.2, majority of the respondents (59.5%) were aged between 30-
40 years, 39.2% were aged below 30 years while 1.4% were aged between 51-60 years. This 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 95
implies that majority of people living in Kileleshwa are aged between 30-40 years hence they are 
in the middle age group.
4.1.3 Marital status 
The study sought to find out the marital status of the area population.
Figure 4.2 Marital status of the respondents
Source: Field survey, 2013
From the findings of the study, 58% of the respondents who participated in the study were 
married while 41% were single. This illustrates that majority of the people living in Kileleshwa, 
were married.
4.1.4 Level of education
The study also sought to find out education level of the area population. 
Table 4.3 Level of education
Frequency Percent
Post graduate degree 14 18.9
Graduate degree 47 63.5
Secondary education 9 12.2
Primary education 2 2.7
Informal education 2 2.7
Total 74 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2013
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 96
As shown in table 4.3 above, majority of the respondents (63.5%) had graduate degree, 18.9% 
had post graduate education, 12.2% had secondary education as their highest level of education 
while 52.7% had primary education and informal as their highest level of education respectively. 
This implies that majority of the respondents had graduate degree and post graduate degree thus 
they had sufficient knowledge to participate in the study.
4.1.5 Number of children according to their age
The study further sought to find out the number of children and their age group. 
Figure 4.3 Number of children according to age
Source: Field survey, 2013
According to the findings, majority of the respondents (50.3%) had children who were aged 
between 0-5 years, 29.4% had children who were aged between 6-13 years, and 5.9% had 
children who were aged between 14-18 years while 7.2% had children who were aged between 
18 and above 25 years. This implies that majority of people living in Kileleshwa have young 
families with children who were aged between 0-5 years of age.
4.1.6 Duration of living in Kileleshwa
The study in this area sought to establish the duration that the respondents had lived in 
Kileleshwa. 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 97
Table 4.4  Duration of living in Kileleshwa
Frequency Percent
0-2 years 34 45.9
3-5 years 34 45.9
6-8 years 2 2.7
9-10 years 4 5.4
Total 74 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2013
According to the results in Table 4.4, majority of the respondents (45.9%) had lived in 
Kileleshwa for duration of between 0-5 years, 5.4% had lived in Kileleshwa for duration of 
between 9-10 years while 2.7% had lived in Kileleshwa for duration of between 6-8 years. This 
implies that majority of the residents have lived in Kileleshwa for duration of between 0-5 years. 
4.1.7 Previous place of residence
The study further sought to establish the previous place of residence of the residents. From the 
findings of the study, majority of the respondents migrated from others estates within Nairobi.
Githurai, Hurlingam, Ruaraka, Langata, Buruburu, Nyayo Estate and Umoja were some of the 
places where the respondents had lived before moving in to Kileleshwa.
4.1.8 Reasons for staying in Kileleshwa
The study in this area sought establishes the reasons why the residents preferred staying at 
Kileleshwa.
Table 4.5 Reasons for staying in Kileleshwa
Frequency Percent
proximity to town centre 16 21.6
proximity to place of 
employment
8 10.8
Affordability 15 20.3
Security 29 39.2
Prestige 6 8.1
Total 74 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2013
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 98
According to the results in Table 4.5, most of the respondents (39.2%) indicated that they 
preferred staying in Kileleshwa due to security, 21.6% indicated proximity to town centre, and 
20.3% indicated affordability while 10.8% and 8.1% indicated proximity to place of employment 
and prestige as the reasons for staying in Kileleshwa respectively. This implies that majority of 
people preferred living in Kileleshwa due to security and proximity to town centre.
4.1.9 Occupation 
The study sought to establish the occupation of the residents in this area.
Figure 4.4 Occupation
Source: Field survey, 2013
According to the results in Figure 4.4, majority of the respondents (51.4%) were in formal 
employment while 48.6% were in self employment.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 99
4.1.10 Monthly Income
The study further sought to establish the monthly income of the area population.
Table 4.6 Monthly Income
Frequency Percent
below 20,000 13 17.6
20,001-50,000 12 16.2
50,001-100,000 22 29.7
100,001-200,000 10 13.5
above 200, 000 17 23.0
Total 74 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2013
According to the findings, most of the respondents (29.7%) indicated that they had an income of 
between Ksh 50,001-100,000, 23% had an income of above Ksh 200,000, 17.6% had an income 
of below Ksh 20,000, and 16.2% had an income of between Ksh 20,001-50,000 while and 13.5% 
had an income of Ksh 100,001-200,000. This implies that majority of residents in Kileleshwa 
had an income of between Ksh 50,001-100,000.
4.1.11 Distance to the place of work 
The study also sought to find out the distance to the place of work in Kilometers from 
Kileleshwa.
Figure 4.5 Distance to place of work
Source: Field survey, 2013
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 100
From the findings of the study, most of the respondents (46%) indicated 3-5 Km as the distance 
from Kileleshwa to their work place, 27% indicated 0-2 Kms and 22% indicated 9-10Kms as the 
distance from Kileleshwa to their work place while 4% and 1% indicated 6-8 Kms and over 10 
Kms as the distance from Kileleshwa to their work place. This implies that majority of the 
residents covered a distance of between 3-5 Kms to their place of work from Kileleshwa.
4.1.12 Means used to the place of work
The study sought to find out the means used by the residents to get to their places of work from 
Kileleshwa. The findings are provided in figure 4.6 below.
Figure 4.6 Means used to place of work
Source: Field survey, 2013
According to the findings, most of the respondents (45.9%) indicated that they used public 
service vehicle to get to their places of work from Kileleshwa, 35.1% used personal cars while 
9.5% walked and cycled to their places of work from Kileleshwa. This implies that majority of 
the residents used public service vehicles and personal cars to get to their places of work from 
Kileleshwa.
4.1.13 Time spent on average to reach to the place of work/business
The study in this area sought to find out the time spent on average to reach to the place of 
work/business by the residents. The findings are provided in figure 4.7 below.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 101
Figure 4.7 Time spent to reach place of work/business
Source: Field survey, 2013
According to the findings, majority of the respondents (59%) indicated that they spent between 
16-30 minutes on average to reach to the place of work/business, 31% spent between 31-60 
minutes on average to reach to the place of work/business while 10% indicated that they spent 
between 61 minutes to 2 hours on average to reach to the place of work/business. This implies 
that majority of the residents spent between 16-30 minutes on average to reach to the place of 
work/business from Kileleshwa.
4.1.14 House ownership status
The study also sought to find out the house ownership status in Kileleshwa. The findings are 
provided in figure 4.8 below.
Figure 4.8 House ownership status
Source: Field survey, 2013
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 102
From the findings of the study, majority of the respondents (95.9%) indicated that they were 
tenants, while the rest (4.1%) were owners. Thus majority of the Kileleshwa residents are 
tenants. For the House owners (3), the study also sought to find out the purchase/ construction 
cost of the houses at Kileleshwa.  From the findings, most of those who owned the houses had 
purchased or constructed them at a cost of between Ksh 18-25 millions and had purchased or  
construction them between the years 2010 and 2012. Further, the study found out that those who 
owned the houses sourced the finances from employers housing schemes and from their personal 
savings.
4.1.15 Monthly rent payable
The study further sought to find out the monthly rent payable by the tenants in Kileleshwa. From 
the findings of the study, majority of the tenants (26.4%) indicated that they paid rent of between 
Ksh 0-25,000, 25.8% paid rent of between Ksh 25,001-50,000 while 32.7%  indicated that they 
paid rent of between Ksh 50, 001-75,000 with 13.1% and 2.1% paying rent of between Ksh 
75,001-100,000 and above 150,000 respectively. This implies that majority of tenants in 
Kileleshwa paid rent of between Ksh 50,001- 75,000.
4.1.16 Type of house
The study sought to find out the type of houses where the residents lived in. The findings are 
provided in Table 4.7 below.
Table 4.7 Type of house
Frequency Percent
Apartment 51 68.9
Maisonette (detached) 5 6.8
Maisonette (row houses) 2 2.7
Bungalow (detached) 4 5.4
Bungalow (row houses) 12 16.2
Total 74 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2013
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 103
From the findings of the study, majority of the respondents (68.9%) indicated that they lived in 
apartments, 16.2% lived in Bungalow (row houses) while 6.8%, 5.4% and 2.7% lived in 
Maisonette (detached), Bungalow (detached) and Maisonette (row houses) respectively.
4.1.17 Size of the houses
The study further sought to find out the size of the houses where the respondents lived in. The 
findings based on 23 respondents who lived in Maisonette or Bungalow are provided in figure 
4.9 below.
Figure 4.9 Size of the house
Source: Field survey, 2013
From the findings of the study, majority of those who lived in Maisonette or Bungalow (54%) 
indicated that they lived in three bed roomed houses, 26% lived in two bed roomed houses while 
9%, 7% and 4% lived in bed sitters, five beds roomed and four bed roomed houses respectively.
4.1.18 Number of storeys of the apartments
The study sought to find out the number of storeys of the apartments including ground floor in 
Kileleshwa. From the survey, 50% of the plots were 4 and 5 storey blocks of apartments, 37 % 
were higher than the recommended five storeys and one block has ten storeys. This illustrates 
increasing height to accommodate high density in Kileleshwa.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 104
4.1.19 Sizes of apartments
From the survey, majority of the units were 3 bedroom apartments with separate servant’s 
quarter at 43%, then 3 bedrooms without servants quarter at 30% while two bedroom apartments 
accounted for 23% of the surveyed units. This illustrates there is more supply of 3 bedroom 
apartments with separate servant’s quarter.
Figure 4.10 Sizes of apartments
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
3 BEDRM + SQ 3 BBEDRM 2 BEDRM 
No. of Bedrooms
Source: Field survey, 2013
4.1.20 Ground coverage and Green cover
The study further sought to find out the Ground Coverage and amount of space left as Green 
Cover as a result of developments in the study area. The findings are provided in figure 4.11
below.
Figure 4.11 Ground coverage and Green cover
25% 19%
75% 81%
0%
50%
100%
Ground cover 25% 75%
Green cover 19% 81%
More than 35% Less than 35%
Source: Field survey, 2013
43%
30%
23%
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 105
From the survey 75% of the plots had a G.C of less than 35% while 25% had a G.C. of more than 
the allowed 35%. However, most of the ground space is taken up by parking and impervious 
surface. 81% of the plots had a ground green cover of less than the recommended 35% and only 
19% of the plots had a green cover of more than 35%. This illustrates that most of the ground 
space is being taken up by parking and impervious surface.
4.1.21 Plot Ratio
From the survey 84% of the plots had a P.R. of more than the allowed 100% while 16% had a 
P.R. of 100% and below. This illustrates increasing pressure on land as a result of increased built 
up space.
4.2 Nature of housing densification
4.2.1 Vertical densification
Densification in Kileleshwa is mainly characterized by highrise apartments to accommodate 
increased housing units per hectare. From the survey, 50% of the sampled plots were 4 and 5 
storey blocks of apartments, 37 % were higher than the recommended five storeys and one block 
has ten storeys. This illustrates increasing height to accommodate high density in Kileleshwa. 
This can further be illustrated by analyzing transformation of land use of Plot No. 209/6491 
along Mandera Road.
Plate 4.4 Redevelopment from single dwelling units to multi dwelling apartments
Source: NHC 2011 Source: Author 2013
2009- BEFORE REDEVELOPMENT 2011- AFTER REDEVELOPMENT
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 106
Table 4.8 Redevelopment of L.R.No. 209/6491
PARTICULARS DESCRIPTION
Apartments Plot No. 209/6491 After Redevelopment Before 
Redevelopment
Plot Area (M2) 14,253m2(1.4Ha) 14,253m2(1.4Ha)
Ground Cover 4,012.68m2 1,250 m2 
Total Built up Area 20,063.4m2 1,250 m2
Total no. of houses 105 5
Total no. of Storeys 5 1
Plot ratio-P.R Council provision After Redevelopment Before 
Redevelopment
100% 141% 9%
Ground Coverage-
G.C
35% 28% 9%
Housing Density 35units/ha (under 
review) 
74units/ha 3.5units/ha 
Source: Adapted from NHC 2011
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 107
The increase in density from 3.5 to 74 units /ha. contributed 100 additional housing units.
From the survey, majority of the units were 3 bedroom apartments with separate servant’s 
quarter at 43%, then 3 bedrooms without servant’s quarter at 30% while two bedroom 
apartments accounted for 23% of the surveyed units. This illustrates there is more supply of 3 
bedroom apartments with separate servant’s quarter in the newly constructed apartment blocks.
4.2.2 Horizontal densification
This is where plots are subdivided and separate dwelling units constructed in parcels that were 
initially for single dwelling unit. From the survey 12.5 % of the surveyed plots had two or three 
storey town houses constructed on parcels initially occupied by single units. 
Map 4.1 Subdivision of L.R. 209/ 14990/31
4.2.3 Plots acreage
Study sought to find out the acreage of majority of plots in Kileleshwa.From the survey, 41% of 
the plots were ½ acre plots, 28 % were ¾ acre plots, 16% were ¼ acre plots while 15% were 
above one acre in size. This illustrates that there has been increased land subdivision in
Kileleshwa to increase density.
Source: Nairobi City Council 2013
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 108
4.2.4 Reasons behind rapid increase in housing density in Kileleshwa
The study further sought to find out the reasons behind rapid increase in housing density in 
Kileleshwa and the following reasons were highlighted; its close proximity to the CBD, 
availability of infrastructure like sewage and road network, low density area with large pieces of 
land and high property value due to its historical identity as an exclusive residential area. The 
growing middle class has also created demand for serviced residential area
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 109
CHAPTER 5
IMPACTS OF HOUSING DENSIFICATION
5.0 Introduction 
This study sought to examine the physical and ecological impacts of the housing densification in 
Kileleshwa. A survey was carried out to assess the status, adequacy and challenges of accessing
infrastructural facilities in the area, basic amenities, community facilities, and other emerging 
environmental issues. From the survey, the following challenges have arisen as a result of 
development in Kileleshwa; challenges in controlling developments, narrow and inadequate road 
networks, overwhelmed infrastructure systems such as piped water, sewerage lines, storm water
drainage, illegal land subdivisions and changes in land use and increased water demand leading 
to drilling of boreholes. Other environmental challenges include illegal use and development on 
riparian reserves, noise and air pollution from construction sites and motor vehicles as well as 
increased generation of solid waste.
5.1 Water 
Majority of the respondents indicated that households in Kileleshwa safeguard against water 
shortage through over head water storage tanks while others safeguarded against water shortage 
through underground water tanks and bore holes. 
5.1.1   Sources of water 
The study in this area sought to find out the Sources of Water in Kileleshwa. Findings are 
presented in figure 5.1 below.
Figure 5.1 Source of water
Source: Field survey, 2013
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 110
From the study findings, majority of the respondents (74%) indicated that Nairobi water and 
Sewerage Company was the source of water at Kileleshwa while 13% and 12% indicated that 
private water vendors and bore holes were the source of water at Kileleshwa. This implies that 
Nairobi water and Sewerage Company was the main source of water at Kileleshwa.
5.1.2 Water shortage
The study also sought to find out whether the households in Kileleshwa experienced Water 
shortages. Findings are presented in table 5.1 below.
Table 5.1 Water shortage 
Frequency Percent
Yes 18 24.3
No 56 75.7
Total 74 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2013
From the study findings of the study, majority of the respondents (75.7%) indicated that 
households in Kileleshwa do not experience water shortage.
5.1.3 Sufficiency of water supply 
The study further sought to find out whether the households in Kileleshwa had sufficient water 
supply. Findings are presented in figure 5.2 below.
Figure 5.2 Sufficiency of water supply
Source: Field survey, 2013
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 111
From the study findings of the study, majority of the respondents (67.6%) indicated that 
households in Kileleshwa had sufficient water supply while 18.9% and 13.5% indicated that 
households in Kileleshwa had very sufficient and averagely water supply. This implies that there 
is sufficient water supply among the households in Kileleshwa.
5.1.4 Safeguard against water shortage
The study also sought to find out how the households in Kileleshwa safeguard against Water 
shortage. Findings are presented in table 5.2 below.
Table 5.2 Safeguard against water shortage
Frequency Percent
Over head water storage tanks 58 78.4
Underground water tanks 9 12.2
Bore holes 7 9.5
Total 74 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2013
From the study findings of the study, majority of the respondents (78.4%) indicated that 
households in Kileleshwa safeguard against water shortage through over head water storage 
tanks while 12.2% and 9.5% safeguarded against water shortage through underground water 
tanks and bore holes respectively. This implies that over head water storage tanks were used to 
safeguard against water shortage among the households in Kileleshwa.
5.2 Storm water drainage
Increased development and expansion of impervious surface layer has led to increased storm 
water generation and flooding. This is aggravated by development on riparian reserves 
particularly along Kirichwa Ndogo and Kirichwa Kubwa rivers.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 112
Plate 5.1 Paved surface for parking and play
Source: Author 2013
Plate 5.2 Encroachment on Kirichwa Kubwa riparian reserve
Source: Author 2013
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 113
Plate 5.3 Boundary wall destroyed by flooded Kirichwa Ndogo river
Source: Author 2013
5.3 Transport system
5.3.1 Traffic congestion
From the findings of the study, majority of the respondents (55.4%) indicated that there were 
traffic congestions on roads in Kileleshwa while 44.6% indicated that there were no traffic 
congestions on roads in Kileleshwa. This implies that that there were traffic congestions on roads 
in Kileleshwa. From the findings of the study, majority of the respondents (77%) indicated that 
they experienced the highest level of traffic congestions from 7-8 AM while (13.5%) indicated 
that they experienced the highest level of traffic congestions from 5-6 PM. This implies that 
roads in Kileleshwa experienced the highest level of traffic congestions from 7-8 AM and 5-6 
PM when many people are going to and from their workplace/ business place. Most of the 
respondents (42.4%) further indicated that increase in the number of vehicles was the major 
cause of traffic congestions on roads in Kileleshwa while 41.1% cited that inadequate roads were 
the causes of traffic congestions on roads in Kileleshwa. This implies that increase in the number 
of vehicles and inadequate roads were the major cause of traffic congestions on roads in 
Kileleshwa.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 114
Plate 5.4 Traffic on the newly constructed link road
5.3.2 State of roads in Kileleshwa 
The study sought to find out the state of roads in Kileleshwa. Findings are presented in figure 5.3 
below.
Figure 5.3 State of roads in Kileleshwa
Source: Field survey, 2013
Source: Author 2013
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 115
According to the findings, majority of the respondents (99%) indicated that the state of roads in 
Kileleshwa was good. This was attributed to the recent upgrading of the roads in the area and 
construction of the missing link road from Chiromo to Yaya Centre.
5.3.2 Traffic congestion
The study further sought to find out whether there is traffic congestion on roads in Kileleshwa. 
Findings are presented in table 5.3 below.
Table 5.3 Traffic congestion
Frequency Percent
Yes 41 55.4
No 33 44.6
Total 74 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2013
From the findings of the study, majority of the respondents (55.4%) indicated that there is traffic 
congestion on roads in Kileleshwa while 44.6% indicated that there is no traffic congestion on 
roads in Kileleshwa. This implies that there is traffic congestion on roads in Kileleshwa.
5.3.3 Time when traffic congestions are high
The study also sought to find out the time when roads in Kileleshwa experienced the highest 
level of traffic congestion. Findings are presented in table 5.4 below.
Table 5.4 Time when traffic congestion is high
Frequency Percent
7-8 am 57 77.0
8-9 am 7 9.5
5-6 pm 10 13.5
Total 74 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2013
From the findings of the study, majority of the respondents (77%) indicated that they 
experienced the highest level of traffic congestion from 7-8 AM while (13.5%) indicated that 
they experienced the highest level of traffic congestion from 5-6 PM. This implies that roads in 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 116
Kileleshwa experienced the highest level of traffic congestion from 7-8 AM and 5-6 PM when 
many people are going to and from their workplace/ business place.
5.3.4 Causes of traffic congestion 
The study also sought to find out the causes of traffic congestion on roads in Kileleshwa. 
Findings are presented in table 5.5 below.
Table 5.5 Causes of traffic congestion
Frequency Percent
Increase in the number of vehicles 64 42.4
Poor states of roads 25 16.6
Inadequate roads 62 41.1
Source: Field survey, 2013
From the findings of the study, most of the respondents (42.4%) indicated that increase in the 
number of vehicles was the major cause of traffic congestion on roads in Kileleshwa while 
41.1% cited that inadequate roads were the causes of traffic congestion on roads in Kileleshwa. 
This implies that increase in the number of vehicles and inadequate roads were the major causes
of traffic congestion on roads in Kileleshwa.
5.3.5 Facility to minimize use of private vehicles in the estate
The study also sought to establish the most important facility that would minimize use of private 
vehicles in Kileleshwa estate. Findings are presented in table 5.6 below.
Table 5.6 Facility to minimize use of private vehicles
Frequency Percent
Provide efficient public transport system 36 48.6
Provide rail services 34 45.9
Provide safe and secure pedestrian lanes 4 5.4
Total 74 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2013
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 117
From the findings of the study, most of the respondents (48.6%) indicated that providing 
efficient public transport system would be the most important facility that would minimize use of 
private vehicles in Kileleshwa estate while 45.9% indicated that provide rail services would be 
the most important facility that would minimize use of private vehicles in Kileleshwa estate. This 
implies that providing efficient public transport system and rail services would be the most 
important facilities that would minimize use of private vehicles in Kileleshwa estate.
5.4 Power shortage
On the challenges facing the residence of Kileleshwa in accessing and utilizing sources of 
energy, most of the respondents indicated that there were frequent power blackouts in the area.
This was occasioned by overloaded transformers which have not been upgraded to accommodate 
the increased electricity demand.
5.4.1 Type of energy used for domestic purposes
The study also sought to find out the type of energy used for domestic purposes among 
households in Kileleshwa. Findings are presented in table 5.7 below:
Table  5.7 Type of energy used for domestic purposes
Source Cooking Lighting Cost per month
Electricity KPLC 48.6 99.1 Ksh 1500-2500
Kerosene Total 5.4 18.9 Ksh 500-1200
Charcoal Vendors 20.3 0.0 Ksh 500-1200
LPG gas Total 96.2 5.6 Ksh 1500-2500
Bio gas N/A 23.0 1.2 Ksh 500-1200
Firewood N/A 0.0 0.0 N/A
Wind N/A 0.0 0.0 N/A
Solar N/A 0.0 36.2 N/A
Source: Field survey, 2013
From the study findings of the study, majority of the respondents (99.1%) indicated that 
households in Kileleshwa use electricity from Kenya Power and Lighting Company for lighting 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 118
at a monthly cost of between Ksh 1500-2500 while 96.2% of the households in Kileleshwa use 
LPG gas for cooking at a monthly cost of between Ksh 1500-2500. This implies that households 
in Kileleshwa use electricity from Kenya Power and Lighting Company for lighting and LPG gas 
from Total Kenya for cooking. On the challenges facing the residence of Kileleshwa in accessing 
and utilizing sources of energy, most of the respondents indicated that there were frequent power 
blackouts in the area. This was associated with persistent breakdown of the transformer that 
serves the area.
5.5 Community facilities
Facilities initially meant for lower population have not been upgraded to accommodate the 
increased population. These include facilities like schools, shopping centre, fresh produce 
markets and health facilities. The study sought to find out the challenges facing the residence of 
Kileleshwa in accessing the facilities. Most of the respondents indicated that they had challenges 
in taking their children to school and later going back to their houses to attend to other duties due 
to traffic jam, others felt some facilities like the hospitals were far, and there was shortage of 
fresh produce in the nearby retail centre. Kasuku shopping centre is the only shopping facility in 
the neighbourhood.
Plate 5.5 Kasuku Shopping Centre
Source: Author 2013
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 119
5.5.1 Distance and means to community facilities
The study sought to find out the distance from Kileleshwa to different facilities and the means 
used to get to these facilities. Findings are presented in table 5.8 below.
Table 5.8 Distance and means to community facilities
Distance in KMs Means of transport to the facility
0-
1 
km
2-
5 
km
5-
8 
km
O
ve
r 
80
km w
al
ki
ng
C
yc
lin
g
Pe
rs
on
al
 
ca
r
Ps
v
Shopping center 83.8 5.4 8.1 2.7 39.1 14.9 12.2 33.8
Fresh produce markets 83.8 1.4 0.0 14.9 39.2 14.9 12.2 33.8
Nursery school 93.2 6.8 0.0 0.0 44.6 14.9 8.1 32.4
Primary school 81.1 12.2 2.8 4.1 40.5 14.9 8.1 36.5
Secondary school 51.4 35.1 5.5 8.1 6.8 14.9 12.2 58.1
Universities 29.7 56.8 9.5 4.1 8.1 14.9 18.9 58.1
Dispensary 62.2 28.4 1.4 8.1 8.1 14.9 18.9 58.1
Health center 51.4 46.6 0.0 0.0 8.1 14.9 18.9 58.1
Hospital 28.4 43.2 21.3 8.1 81.1 12.2 2.8 4.1
Social hall 35.1 40.5 16.3 8.1 51.4 35.1 5.5 8.1
Churches/mosques 66.2 32.4 1.4 0.0 29.7 56.8 9.5 4.1
Police post 73.0 14.9 8.1 4.1 62.2 28.4 1.4 8.1
Public play ground 33.8 43.2 8.1 14.9 28.4 43.2 21.3 8.1
Recreation 47.3 25.7 14.9 12.8 35.1 40.5 16.3 8.1
Source: Field survey, 2013
From the study findings, majority of the respondents (83.8%) indicated 0-1 Km as the distance 
from Kileleshwa to the Shopping center and fresh produce markets. 93.2% indicated that the 
distance from Kileleshwa to Nursery school was 0-1 Km while 81.1%, 73%, 66.2% and 51.4% 
indicated that the distance from Kileleshwa to Primary school, Police post, Churches/mosques, 
Dispensary and Health center was 0-1 Km respectively. 56.8% of the respondents further % 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 120
indicated that the distance from Kileleshwa to the Universities was 2-5 KMs. On the other hand, 
majority of the respondents (81.1%) indicated that they walks to the hospitals while 62.2% and 
51.4% indicated that they walked to the police post and social hall respectively. 56.8% further 
stated that they walked to the Churches/mosques while 58.1% used public service vehicles from 
Kileleshwa to the Universities, Dispensary and Health centers. This implies that the distance 
from Kileleshwa to the Shopping center, fresh produce, Nursery school, Primary school, Police 
post, Churches/mosques, Dispensary and Health center was 0-1 Km. Further, majority of the 
respondent’s walks to the hospitals, police post, social hall, Churches/mosques while others used  
public service vehicles from Kileleshwa to the Universities, Dispensary and Health centers.
5.5.2 Challenges in accessing the community facilities
The study sought to find out the challenges facing the residents of Kileleshwa in accessing the 
facilities. Most of the respondents indicated that they had challenges in taking their children to 
school and later going back to their houses to attend to other duties due to traffic jam, challenges 
with means of transport for those who use public service vehicle, insecurity at night mostly after 
10 PM, some facilities were very far like the hospitals, there were shortage of fresh produce in 
the market sometimes and traffic jams.
5.6 Land use conflict
This was evident as a result of construction of apartment blocks on plots adjacent to schools and 
other low density development. This affects the aesthetic nature of the previously leafy suburb 
that is being replaced by concrete jungle of highrise apartment blocks. Lack of adequate strategic 
shopping centres has also caused mushrooming of shops, bars and restaurants adjacent to 
residential houses.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 121
Plate 5.6 School adjacent to an apartment block along Kandara road
5.7 Pollution
Construction sites are the major sources of dust and noise due to heavy construction machinery 
and debris. Fumes from the high number of motor vehicles also contribute to air pollution and 
increased generation of solid waste also end up polluting rivers and damaging the fragile 
ecosystem.
Plate 5.7 Polluted river basin
Source: Author 2013
Source: Author 2013
Kirichwa Kubwa Kirichwa Ndogo
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 122
5.8 Disposal of liquid waste
The study in this area sought to find out how households in Kileleshwa disposed the liquid 
waste. Findings are presented in table 5.9 below.
Table 5.9 Disposal of liquid waste
Frequency Percent
Nairobi water and Sewerage 
company
43 58.1
Septic tank 23 31.1
Pit latrine 8 10.8
Total 74 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2013
From the findings of the study, majority of the respondents (58.1%) indicated that households in 
Kileleshwa disposed the liquid waste through Nairobi water and Sewerage Company, 31.1% 
through Septic tank while 10.8% disposed the liquid waste through Pit latrine. This implies that 
Nairobi water and Sewerage Company and Septic tanks were used to dispose the liquid waste
among the households in Kileleshwa. 
5.8.1 Blockage of sewerage system
The study also sought to find out whether households in Kileleshwa experienced blockage of 
sewerage system. Findings are presented in figure 5.4 below.
Figure 5.4 Blockage of sewerage system
Source: Field survey, 2013
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 123
From the findings of the study, majority of the respondents (91%) indicated that households in 
Kileleshwa do not experience blockage of sewerage system.
5.9 Reduced ecological value of land
Environmental degradation arising from impacts of increased development on the area has 
reduced the ecological and aesthetic value of the previously low density residential area on large 
tracks of land. 
Plate 5.8 Apartments in the study area
5.10 Solid Waste
5.10.1 Disposal of Solid Waste
The study sought to find out how households in Kileleshwa disposed the solid waste. Findings 
are presented in figure 5.5 below.
Figure 5.5 Disposal of solid waste
Source: Field survey, 2013
Source: Author 2013
Along Kandara rd. Along Ring rd. Along Olenguruone Avenue
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 124
From the findings of the study, majority of the respondents (60.8%) indicated that households in 
Kileleshwa disposed the solid waste through private garbage collectors while 39.2% disposed the 
solid waste through Nairobi City Council. This implies that private garbage collectors were used 
to dispose the solid waste among the households in Kileleshwa. 
5.10.2 Efficiency of the waste collection services
The study further sought to find out how the respondents rated the waste collection services in 
Kileleshwa. Findings are presented in table 5.10 below.
Table 5.10 Efficiciency of the waste collection services
Frequency Percent
Fair 26 35.1
Good 39 52.7
Very good 9 12.2
Total 74 100.0
From the findings of the study, majority of the respondents (52.7%) rated waste collection 
services in Kileleshwa as being good, 35.1% rated the services as fair while 12.2% rated the 
services as being very good. This implies that waste collection services in Kileleshwa are good.
5.11 Security 
5.11.1 Security Problem
The study in this area sought to establish the whether the respondents had experienced any 
security problems since they occupied the house they live in. Findings are presented in figure 5.6
below.
Figure 5.6 Security Problem
Source: Field survey, 2013
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 125
From the findings of the study, majority of the respondents (72%) indicated that they had not 
experienced any security problems since they occupied the house they live in while 28% 
indicated that they had experienced security problems since they occupied the house they live in.  
This implies that the residents had not experienced any security problems since they occupied the 
house they lived in. For those who had experienced security problems, the study found out that 
break in and carjacking were the most experienced security problems in the estate.
5.12 Livability 
The study in this area sought to find out how the residents rated the provision of facilities which 
affects livability in residential environment. The responses were rated on a five point Likert scale 
where: 1 – Very good 2 – Good 3 – Fair 4- Poor and 5- Very poor. Findings are presented in table 
5.11 below.
Table 5.11 Provision of facilities to improve livability
Mean Std. Deviation
Ventilation 4.57 0.773
Natural lighting of the rooms 4.53 0.789
Room size 4.27 0.588
Internal thermal 
comfort/temperature
4.37 0.681
Parking space 4.23 0.952
Open green space 4.00 1.232
Children play area 4.23 0.917
Safety guard rails (in walk 
ways, stairs, terraces, 
balconies
2.43 1.209
Source: Field survey, 2013
From the study findings, majority of the respondents indicated that ventilation was very good as 
shown by the mean score of 4.57, natural lighting of the rooms, Internal thermal, Room size, 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 126
Parking space, Children play area and Open green space were good as shown by the mean scores 
of 4.53, 4.37, 4.27, 4.23 and 4.00 respectively. However, safety guard rails (in walk ways, stairs, 
terraces, balconies provision were inadequate as indicated by a mean score of 2.43.
5.12.1 Facilities to enhance accessibility and safety 
The study also sought to find out whether the following facilities to enhance accessibility and 
safety were provided in Kileleshwa. Findings are presented in table 5.12 below.
Table 5.12 Facilities to enhance accessibility and safety
Yes No
Access for people with disability 21.6% 78.4%
Lift 1.2% 98.8%
Fire fighting equipments 84.1% 15.9%
Internet/ data 54.9% 45.1%
Central/ aerial TV 32.4% 67.6%
CCTV 55.4% 44.6%%
Source: Field survey, 2013
From the study findings, majority of the respondents (78.4%) indicated that buildings in 
Kileleshwa does not allow access for people with disability, 98.8% cited that buildings in 
Kileleshwa do not have lifts while 84.1% indicated that buildings in Kileleshwa have fire 
fighting equipments. Further, 54.9% of the respondents indicated that buildings in Kileleshwa 
had Internet/ data, 67.6% indicated that buildings in Kileleshwa do not have Central/ aerial TV 
while 55.4% of the buildings in Kileleshwa had CCTV. This implies that majority buildings in 
Kileleshwa do not allow access for people with disability, lifts, do not have Central/ aerial TV 
but have fire fighting equipments, Internet/ data and CCTV.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 127
CHAPTER 6
ROLE OF GREEN DESIGNS AND STRATEGIES IN SUSTAINABLE DENSIFICATION
6.0 Green designs and strategies in development projects
The study found out that sustainable communities should be filled with green structures, which 
can be typically promoted through green design regulations or guidelines. Unfortunately, there 
are no clear guidelines for regulatory authorities to enforce comprehensive green design 
regulations at development approval stage and during construction.
From the interview conducted, protection of existing green spaces according to Nairobi City 
Council’s Forward planning department is addressed by ensuring development permits are only
issued to those who have observed the requisite greenery. Minimizing excess (impervious) 
paving is addressed through encouraging land scaping and planting flowers, while use of green 
infrastructure is addressed through encouraging environmental friendly technologies. 
Minimizing energy use is addressed through encouraging energy saving lamps, solar panels and 
use of natural lighting while waste management is addressed through leasing recycling 
companies and waste collectors. The responses are indicated in table 6.1.
6.1 Key objectives
Some key objectives of green strategies were identified as below:
6.1.1 Energy efficiency
Sustainable housing development should address energy efficiency through strategies such as 
energy efficient technologies and appliances, use of natural day lighting, good ventilation and 
good thermal insulation of building components (walls, windows, roof etc). Use of renewable 
energy sources like solar panels for heating and lighting as well as use of solar walls should be 
encouraged.
Passive design strategies should be employed to enhance energy use in buildings. These include 
shape of the building and orientation to maximize day lighting. Use of light colours should also 
be maximized for roofing and wall finish to control excessive solar heating thereby reducing the 
need for mechanical cooling.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 128
Table 6.1 How green strategies are addressed in development projects
Strategy Response from
City Council of Nairobi NEMA
1) Protection of existing green 
spaces
Development permits are 
issued to those who have 
observed the requisite 
greenery
Objecting to any proposed projects 
on these spaces
2) Minimizing excess (impervious) 
paving
Encouraging landscaping 
with more greenery
Encouraging landscaping with more 
greenery
3) Use of green infrastructure 
(Green ecoroofs, green walls, 
tree planting).
Encouraged Advising on environmentally 
friendly technologies
4) Minimizing water use
5) Minimizing energy use Encouraging use of natural 
light by large windows
Encouraging energy saving lamps 
and solar panels
6) Minimizing private car usage Encouraging public 
transport
Hard to manage
7) Waste management (Reduce, 
Reuse and Recycling strategies)
Encouraging recycling of 
waste
Licensing recycling companies and 
waste collectors
8) Storm water control Reduction of paved areas 
and tree planting
Roof harvesting and design of storm 
drains
9) Protection of green corridors 
and riparian reserves
-Enforcement of riparian 
laws
Allowing development at least 30 
meters from the riparian line
The study sought to find out how the Nairobi City Council and National Environment 
Management Authority (NEMA) ensure energy efficiency in buildings in Kileleshwa. From the 
findings of the study, the regulatory bodies encourage large windows and use of energy saving 
lighting bulbs as a way of addressing energy efficiency. Solar panels are also encouraged. 
Majority of the respondents (99.1%) indicated that households in Kileleshwa use electricity for 
lighting at a monthly cost of between Ksh 1500-2500 while 96.2% of the households in 
Kileleshwa use LPG gas for cooking at a monthly cost of between Ksh 1500-2500. This implies 
Source: Field study, 2013
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 129
that households in Kileleshwa use electricity for lighting and LPG gas for cooking. Most of the 
respondents however indicated that there are frequent power blackouts in the area. This therefore 
means that strategies to reduce energy use by encouraging alternative sources of energy are not 
effective in Kileleshwa.
6.1.2 Sustainable water management
Green buildings should be designed to use water efficiently by managing waste water for reuse, 
using water efficient plumbing devices and rainwater harvesting. Water consumption should also 
be minimized by matching quality with end use. Gray water should be collected separately from 
black water and recycled on site for use such as landscape irrigation and cleaning.
From the study findings, majority of the respondents (74%) indicated that Nairobi Water and 
Sewerage Company was the source of their water, and that the supply was sufficient according to 
67.6% of the respondents. However majority of residents (78.4%) use overhead water storage 
tanks to safeguard against water shortage. Others also source for the commodity from private 
water vendors and bore holes. From interviews with the regulatory authorities, there are no 
mechanisms to ensure residents use the scarce water resources sustainably, neither is there 
requirement for separation of gray water from black water.
6.1.3 Protection of green spaces
Sustainability goals associated with green open spaces include cutting green house gas emission, 
creating rich neighbourhood for play and recreation and improvement of air quality. Green space 
also helps to control flooding by allowing water infiltration to replenish underground aquifers.
Protection of open space is usually done using Ground Coverage (G.C.) ratio to regulate the 
proportion of the plot that is built up. From the survey 75% of the plots had a G.C that is within
the allowed 35%. However, most of the ground space is taken up by parking and impervious 
surface. The study further found out that 81% of the plots had a ground green cover of less than 
the recommended 35%. This illustrates that most of the ground space is being taken up by 
parking and impervious surface.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 130
6.1.4 Green infrastructure
Green infrastructure comprises natural and designed systems and elements of a city or 
development that function in ways similar to natural processes in managing air, water, 
microclimatic and energy resources. These include trees, open spaces, lawns, parks and all places 
that have water pervious surfaces and soil to support plant material. The role of green 
infrastructure includes; air quality improvement, micro climate regulation, and storm water 
management and recreation opportunities. Green infrastructure can be enhanced by greening 
roads, having planted round abouts, use of green walls, eco-roofs, and use of porous paving 
material.
Vertical densification and cluster development that involves placing buildings together and 
leaving large open space rather than housing units sprawling across the plot can greatly reduce 
infrastructure costs such as paving as well as create adequate green open space. 
NEMA and Nairobi City Council reported encouraging green infrastructure and environmentally 
friendly technologies. There is however lack of a framework to facilitate compliance. There are 
no requirements for developers to install green walls, green roofs or use porous paving materials 
for roads and parking areas.
6.1.5 Green construction materials
Renewable construction materials should be used rather than non-renewable materials. Energy 
invested in the production of materials should be valued. Use of locally available materials saves 
energy and resources in transportation. It is also important to design for long life and easy 
eventual recycling of material constituents. Reuse and recycling of construction and demolition 
materials should be promoted.  
From interviews with the regulatory authorities, there are no mechanisms to ensure residents use 
renewable or local construction materials. Though recycling of waste is encouraged by the City 
Council, there are no mechanisms for enforcement of the same.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 131
6.1.6 Waste management
An effective waste management strategy should ensure that waste generated in a facility is 
recycled for reuse or recycled back into the environment through biodegradation. Use of 
products that minimize waste and are non toxic should be encouraged. Waste should also be 
sorted at source and convenient bins provided to separate biodegradable and recyclable materials 
from other waste.
From the findings of the study, majority of the respondents (60.8%) indicated that households in 
Kileleshwa disposed the solid waste through private garbage collectors while 39.2% disposed the 
solid waste through Nairobi City Council. Separate bins for different types of wastes are 
however not provided.
Observation on site and interviews with built environment professional however showed there is 
lack of capacity to enforce the necessary green strategies as envisioned by NEMA and city 
council. Existing green spaces are rapidly disappearing and the area slowly transforming into 
concrete jungle. The more construction takes place the more the creation of impervious surfaces. 
Use of Ground Coverage regulation as a tool to ensure adequate site greenery has also failed 
since the open undeveloped space is taken up by paved walking and parking spaces. The 
authorities also lack legal instruments to ensure green infrastructure, minimize water use, 
minimize energy use, and minimize private car use. This indicates the need to come up with clear 
regulations to operationalise green strategies for sustainable development. 
6.2 Role of NEMA and Nairobi City Council in development
The study sought to find out the role of National Environmental Management Authority and 
Nairobi City Council, now under Nairobi County Government in regulating and guiding 
development in the city. From the findings, Nairobi City Council formulates development 
policies and enforces development control by reviewing and issuing development permits. 
National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA) undertakes regulatory responsibilities 
on sustainable development through Environmental Impact Assessment and monitoring 
compliance to environmental regulations.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 132
6.2.1 Efficiency in achieving organizational goals
The study further found out that National Environmental Management Authority and Nairobi 
city council have not fully achieved their goals due to challenges like inefficient development 
control and resistance by developers to comply with regulations and guidelines.  Other 
challenges faced by National Environmental Management Authority and Nairobi City Council 
in enforcing and ensuring adherence to environmental standards were highlighted as; ignorance 
of members of the public on development procedures, overlapping mandates with different 
stakeholders and low funding for regulatory agencies for adequate monitoring and follow up on 
ongoing developments.
6.2.2 Enforcement of the environmental guidelines and regulations in Kileleshwa
The study in this area sought to find out how the National Environmental Management Authority 
and Nairobi City Council rated the Enforcement of the environmental guidelines and regulations 
in Kileleshwa. From the findings of the study, majority of the respondents (89%) stated that 
guidelines and regulations in Kileleshwa have been partially enforced due to lack of adequate 
man power to monitor and control development and lack of financial support to upgrade the 
existing services. 
6.3 Zoning and planning guidelines and regulations in Kileleshwa
The study further sought to find out whether the current zoning and planning guidelines and 
regulations in Kileleshwa were sufficient to safeguard against the negative impacts of 
development in the area. From the findings, the current zoning and planning guidelines and 
regulations in Kileleshwa were not sufficient to safeguard against the negative impacts of 
development in the area due to the fact that development tread is faster than the guiding policies 
and regulations and slow enforcement of development regulations due to lack of adequate 
manpower.
6.4 Satisfaction with the current housing development
The study also sought to establish in general whether the residents were satisfied with the current 
housing development in Kileleshwa. From the findings of the study, all of the respondents 
(100%) indicated that they were satisfied with the current housing development in Kileleshwa 
due to; building which are well spaced and good security in the area, good ventilation in the 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 133
houses, availability of the facilities like garbage collection, water, lighting and access to facilities 
like shopping malls, hospitals and schools. This illustrates that on the overall, the residents of 
Kileleshwa are satisfied with ongoing development but there is an expressed need to come up 
strategies to reduce the impacts of the developments.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 134
CHAPTER 7  
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 Synthesis
The study found out that Kileleshwa has experienced rapid densification over the years. The area 
which at independence was an exclusive European housing zone characterized by low density 
and high income single dwelling units has changed rapidly over the last few years with 
noticeable change from low density high income housing to medium income high density 
residential neighbourhood characterised by walk up apartments and office blocks.  The current 
housing densification trend is therefore mainly vertical in nature though there are some that take 
horizontal character. 
The study found out that the close proximity of Kileleshwa to Nairobi Central Business 
District, security and availability of infrastructure are the main factors contributing to people 
migrating to Kileleshwa. Majority of residents are in the middle age group of between 30- 40 
years with at least a graduate degree.  This means the residents have sufficient knowledge about 
planning and environmental matters affecting them. Further, the study found that most residents 
have young families with children who are aged between 0-5 years of age. Adequate provision of 
schools, hospitals, recreation areas and children play areas is therefore an important priority for 
Kileleshwa.
Further, the study found out that the increased housing density has significant physical and 
ecological impacts. These include; water shortage, power black outs, traffic congestion, land use 
conflicts, insufficient community facilities, encroachment on riparian reserves, pollution, and 
increased storm water generation. The existing infrastructure, commercial and community facilities 
that were designed for low density land use have not been expanded to accommodate the increasing 
density which stands at 883 households per sq. Km.
The study also endeavored to investigate the extent to which green designs and strategies can be 
used to mitigate negative impacts of densification process. Strategies aimed at enhancing energy 
efficiency, sustainable water management, protection of green spaces, use of green infrastructure 
and construction materials and sustainable waste management should be used to sustain low 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 135
impact housing densification. However the study found out that the City council and NEMA lack 
sufficient legal, financial and human capacity to enforce the necessary green designs and
strategies. Most of the existing ground spaces are taken up by paving and impervious surface
leaving insufficient green spaces and play areas. This means the Ground Coverage ratio fails to protect 
the fragile green spaces or minimize excess (impervious) paving.  Encroachment on riparian 
reserves is evident from the study findings, as well as flooding due to lack of effective storm 
water control strategies.
The study further found that there are no requirements for developers to use green infrastructure 
(Green ecoroofs, green walls, tree planting) and also the regulatory authorities, lack mechanisms to 
ensure residents use the scarce water resources sustainably. Strategies to reduce energy use by 
encouraging alternative sources of energy are also not effective in Kileleshwa.
The study found that regulatory authorities also lack capacity to minimize use of private motor vehicles. 
Traffic congestion is therefore experienced particularly from 7-8AM and 5-6PM. Further, the regulatory
authorities also lack mechanisms to ensure residents use renewable or local construction 
materials, or ensure efficient waste management strategies through waste reduction, separation, 
reuse and recycling of waste.
The study further found out that, the current zoning and planning regulations in Kileleshwa are
not sufficient to safeguard against the negative impacts of development in the area. This is due to 
the fact that sufficient integration of policies and guidelines for green designs within the 
development control framework is lacking.
Lastly, the housing densification in Kileleshwa has a positive implication of increasing housing 
stock in the area. From the study, the residents positively identify with the ongoing development 
and majority expressed satisfaction with the current housing development in Kileleshwa. 
However, but there is an expressed need to integrate green strategies to reduce the negative 
impacts of the developments.
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 136
7.3 Conclusion of the study
This study sought to investigate strategies for sustainable housing densification. To achieve this,
the study pursued the general objectives to determine the extent and nature of housing 
densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi and examine the related impacts of the densification 
process. The study also sought to investigate the extent to which integration of green designs and 
strategies can be advanced to achieve sustainable housing densification. The study pursued the 
argument that the current housing densification in Kileleshwa is unsustainable and requires 
alternative low impact strategies. 
To achieve this, the study got data from secondary and primary sources. The study established 
that Kileleshwa has experienced rapid transformation over the years from low density single 
dwelling units on large pieces of land to high rise multiple user apartments mostly inhabited by 
middle age and middle income residents with young families.
The study also established that close proximity of Kileleshwa to Nairobi Central Business 
District, as well as security and availability of infrastructure are the main factors contributing to 
people migrating to Kileleshwa. 
The study also established that the rapid housing densification has significant physical and 
ecological impacts. These negative impacts include water shortage, intermittent power supply, 
traffic congestion, land use conflicts, insufficient community facilities, encroachment on riparian 
reserves, pollution, and increased storm water generation. There is however the positive impact 
of increasing the area housing stock.
The study also established that green designs and strategies can be used to mitigate negative 
impacts of densification process. These are strategies aimed at enhancing energy efficiency, 
sustainable water management, protection of green spaces, use of green infrastructure and 
construction materials and sustainable waste management. However the regulatory authorities 
lack sufficient legal, financial and human capacity to enforce the necessary green designs and 
strategies. There is lack of efficient mechanisms to protect the fragile green spaces, minimize
excess paving, prevent encroachment on riparian reserves, prevent flooding, use green 
infrastructure, ensure residents manage water resources sustainably or use energy efficiently. 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 137
The study further established that, the current legal instruments are not sufficient to safeguard 
against the negative impacts of development in the area. This is because integration of policies 
and guidelines for green designs and strategies within the development control framework is 
lacking.
Lastly, the study established that the residents are satisfied with the current housing development 
in Kileleshwa, but expressed the need to integrate strategies to reduce the negative impacts of the 
developments.
7.4 Recommendations of the study
The study established that the rapid housing densification in Kileleshwa has significant physical 
and ecological impacts. Further, it was established that green designs and strategies can be used 
to mitigate negative impacts of densification process. However, integration of policies and 
guidelines for green designs and strategies within the development control framework is lacking. 
The current legal instruments are also not sufficient to safeguard against the negative impacts of 
development in the area. Consequently, the following recommendations are proposed to be 
integrated within the new building code which is still in draft format. These are intended to guide 
development in Kileleshwa and also provide general policy guidelines to ensure sustainable 
housing densification in Kenya.
7.4.1 Density regulation
The study recommends that the Nairobi County Government should streamline development 
control in Kileleshwa and ensure strict enforcement of planning regulations. Adequate man-
power to monitor and control development should also be provided. The number of housing units 
allowed per hectare should be clearly provided for all upcoming high-rise apartments and not 
rely on Plot Ratio to generate the density.
7.4.2 Green spaces
There should be a clear definition of green ground cover and paved ground cover. Green ground 
cover should not be less than 30%. Porous paving materials should also be used for onsite 
parking and planted grass to increase greenery. Estate service charges should also used for 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 138
greening roads through tree planting, landscape and lawn maintenance. Environmental Impact 
Assessment and monitoring should also be done strictly for all upcoming development.
7.4.2 Infrastructure upgrading
The government should further provide adequate funds to improve the infrastructure services in 
the area. Road network within the estate should be expanded to reduce the traffic jams and 
facilities for piped water and sewer lines upgraded as well. Safe and secure pedestrian and 
bicycle lanes to encourage non-motorized transport modes should be provided and strategies put 
in place to streamline public transport service.  
7.4.3 Green infrastructure 
Sufficient amount of trees and green cover should be provided to be not less than 30% of the plot 
and strictly enforced. Perimeter walls should also incorporate green design for climbers and other 
green cover. Roof covers for buildings, walkways and parking spaces should be eco roof to 
regulate micro climate.
7.4.4 Efficiency in water use
Rainwater harvesting and collection of surface runoff for pavement cleaning and gardening 
irrigation should be incorporated in development proposals and strictly enforced. Gray water 
should also be collected separately from black water.
7.4.5 Efficiency in energy use
Sufficient natural and day lighting in building design should be provided and the building code 
strictly enforced with regard to siting of building away from adjacent boundary walls or other 
buildings to ensure adequate clearance for lighting and ventilation. Harnessing of solar power for 
water heating, street lighting and other domestic use should also be incorporated in development 
proposals. The building mass should also use reflective materials and bright colours for roof and 
wall to reduce heat gains and losses in building.  Use of energy efficient appliances and energy 
saving lamps should also be promoted through sensitization and public awareness.
7.4. 6 Transport system
The Nairobi County Government should provide an efficient fixed schedule-fixed route public 
transport system to reduce on use of private car usage. This will reduce traffic congestion and 
pollution and energy consumption associated with private motor vehicles. Further to that, 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 139
adequate, secure and well lit lanes for pedestrians and other non-motorized transport modes 
should be provided in all the roads in Kileleshwa to increase permeability and mobility in the 
area. 
7.4. 7 Waste management 
Development proposals should integrate use of renewable and recyclable materials as much as 
possible to minimize waste. Waste collection companies should provide facilities for disposing 
different wastes separately. Organic waste should be separated for onsite garden use while 
reusable and recyclable waste should be dispatched to recycling companies. More recycling 
companies should be licensed and given tax and other incentives to encourage environmental 
conservation.
7.4. 8 Storm water control 
Paved areas should be reduced and trees planted to control surface run off. This should be done 
by enforcing the minimum green ground cover. Proposals for rainwater harvesting should also be 
incorporated in development proposals. Adequate finances should also be provided by the 
government for greening roads through tree planting and maintenance of green ground cover on 
road reserves. Storm water drainage channels should be cleaned and well maintained and riparian 
laws fully enforced to protect fragile wetlands.
7.4.9 Land use conflict
A development plan should be prepared for Kileleshwa considering current population growth 
and emerging land uses to determine broadly feasible structure of land use pattern for the area. 
This should cover adequate provision for residential, commercial, public purpose, recreation, 
education and roads requirements for a long term period of up to 2030. Missing facilities like 
shopping centre, schools, health centre and community social halls should be provided to avoid 
land use conflict.
The study further recommends that the government should facilitate more housing to 
accommodate the increasing urban population and reduce congestion in the cities and residential 
estates. 
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 140
Table 7.1: Proposed Sustainable Housing Densification strategies
Proposed Sustainable Housing Densification strategies
Goals Strategy Action Actor
1) Protection 
and 
expansion 
existing 
green spaces
- Clear definition of green ground 
cover and paved ground cover-
 Green ground cover should not be 
less than 30%
-Porous paving materials to be used 
for onsite parking. At least 50% of 
onsite parking to be of porous 
materials
-Estate service charges to be used 
for greening roads through tree 
planting, lawn maintenance and 
drainage cleaning.
-Environmental Impact Assessment 
and monitoring to be done strictly 
for all upcoming development.
 -Green ground cover 
should not be less than 
30%.
- At least 50% of onsite 
parking to be of porous 
materials.
-Ensure clean/well 
maintained estate roads, 
lawns, channels.
-EIA Licenses to be 
issued prior to 
commencement.
-Nairobi 
County
Government
/NEMA
 ”
-Nairobi 
County
Government
/KARA
-NEMA
2) Minimizing 
excess 
(impervious) 
paving
-Encouraging landscaping with 
more greenery 
- Clear definition of green ground 
cover and paved ground cover
-Porous paving materials to be used 
for onsite parking
-Parking areas to be covered with 
green roof slabs/covers
-Green ground cover 
should not be less than 
30%
- At least 50% of onsite 
parking to be of porous 
materials,
-Green roofs to be used 
as trade off for less green 
ground cover so long as 
no green cover less than 
20% is allowed.
-Nairobi 
County
Government
-NEMA
3) Use of green 
infrastructure 
(Green 
ecoroofs, 
green walls, 
tree 
planting).
-Perimeter walls to be made green 
walls
-Green roofing materials to be used 
such as ecoroofs
-Use of live fence to be 
encouraged. Solid
perimeter walls beyond 
1.2m height to be made 
green with climbers and 
wall shrubs.
- Green roof as above.
-Nairobi 
County
Government
/NEMA
4) Minimizing 
water use
-Reduce water consumption by 
installing efficient fixtures and 
outlets,
-Collect rainwater  and surface 
runoff for gardening and irrigation,
- Collect gray water separately from 
black water,
-Use of efficient fixtures 
to be encouraged-public 
awareness
-Underground water 
storage equivalent to 
200gullons per dwelling 
unit as approval 
condition.
-Nairobi 
County
Government
/NEMA
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 141
5) Minimizing 
energy use
-Use efficient equipment/ 
appliances, energy saving lamps to 
reduce energy demand.
-Ensure sufficient natural day 
lighting in building design; large 
windows and strictly enforcing 
building code.
-Install appropriate energy storage 
to buffer intermittent production of 
energy.
-Harness solar power for lighting 
and water heating.
- Use well insulated building 
materials to reduce heat gains and 
losses.
-Use reflective materials and bright 
colours for roof and wall to reduce 
heat gains and losses in building
-Use of efficient 
appliances to be 
encouraged-public 
awareness.
-Strict enforcement of 
building code; building 
line, window sizes, siting 
of building.
-Solar energy for street 
lighting and water 
heating as development 
conditions.
-Use of appropriate 
materials & colours  as 
approval conditions.
-Kenya 
Power
-Nairobi 
County
Government
- Kenya 
Power
-Nairobi 
County
Government
6) Minimizing 
private car 
usage
- Provide efficient  fixed schedule-
fixed route public transport system
- Provide efficient train  service
- Provide adequate, secure and well 
lit lanes for pedestrians and other 
non- motorized transport modes
-Efficient PSV road & 
rail transport system.
-Pedestrians/NMT lanes 
on all roads.
-Nairobi 
County
Government
 ”
7) Waste 
management 
(Reduce, 
Reuse and 
Recycling 
strategies)
-Use  renewable and recycled 
construction  material
-Encourage recycling of organic 
waste for onsite garden use; 
compost pits
License more recycling companies 
and waste collectors
-License waste collectors 
with proved capacity for 
waste separation and 
recycling
-Nairobi 
County
Government
/NEMA
8) Storm water 
control
-Reduce  paved areas and increase 
tree planting
-Collect rainwater and surface 
runoff for gardening and irrigation 
-Green roads through tree planting, 
lawn maintenance and 
-Stormwater drainage channels 
cleaning and maintenance 
- Enforcement of riparian laws and 
respecting for water catchment 
areas
-Green ground cover not    
less than 30%.
- 50% of onsite parking 
to be of porous materials.
-Surface water storage as 
approval condition.
-Ensure clean/well 
maintained estate roads, 
lawns, channels.
-Ensure no construction 
within 30m from 
riverline
-Nairobi 
County
Government
/NEMA
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 142
Source: Author, 2013
7.5 Recommendations for further studies
Further research on sustainable housing densification needs to be carried out to examine the 
multiple implications of the development. This study dwelt mainly on physical and ecological 
factors and this therefore calls for further study on socio-economic and cultural implications of 
housing densification. The time limitation for this study could also not allow in-depth analysis of 
the carrying capacity of the area and further research to scientifically assess the carrying 
capacities of existing infrastructural facilities like piped water network, sewerage lines and 
electricity connectivity network is recommended. At the same time the findings were based on a 
relatively small sample that may have influenced the nature of results that were obtained. There 
is need therefore to expand on the sample size and carry out similar research in other estates to 
allow us draw conclusions and provide information that is sufficient for policy development. 
9) Protection of 
green 
corridors and 
riparian 
reserves
-Enforcement of riparian laws
-Allowing development at least 30 
meters from the riparian line
-Ensure no construction 
within 30m from 
riverline.
-Nairobi 
County
Government
/NEMA
10) Minimizing 
land use 
conflict
- Strictly enforcing planning 
regulations
- Provide missing basic facilities 
like shopping centre, schools, 
health centre and  community social 
halls
-Integrated development 
plan –Capturing missing 
communal facilities 
-Nairobi 
County
Government
11) Reducing 
traffic 
congestion
- Provide efficient  public transport 
system to discourage private 
vehicles
- Provide overpasses at 
intersection/junction of major roads 
- Provide adequate, secure and well 
lit lanes for pedestrians and other 
non-  motorized transport modes
-Efficient PSV road & 
rail transport system.
-Functional overpasses
-Pedestrians/NMT lanes 
on all roads.
-Nairobi 
County
Government
Sustainable Housing Densification in Kileleshwa, Nairobi 143
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Kirichwa Kubwa River
Kirichwa Ndogo Roads Upgrade
Newly constructed Ring 
rd and Olenguruone rd  
and all major roads should 
be provided with:
· adequate, secure and 
well lit pedestrian 
lanes,
· Solar street lighting
· Sufficient green 
furniture 
· Estate service charges 
to be used for tree 
planting, lawn
maintenance and 
drainage cleaning.
· Provide overpasses at 
intersections/junctions.
Protection of Riperian
Corridors
Riperian corridors along 
Kirichwa Ndogo and 
Kirichwa Kubwa should 
be protected through;
· Strict enforcement of 
riparian laws,
· No development 
within 30m distance 
from riparian line,
· Regular cleaning and 
planting of trees along 
corridors.Commercial facilities
Additional commercial nodes are proposed at the intersection of Ringroad and Kieni Road and 
Mandera road and Kandara road junction to provide essential low order goods.
Existing Kasuku CentreAppendix 1.1- Proposed Interventions
Services
Water, electricity, 
sewer and storm 
water drainage to be 
upgraded:
· Unsewered area 
between Mandera 
rd and Kirichwa 
ndogo to be linked
· Roads expanded 
to allow storm 
water channels, 
pedestrians/NMT
Source: Author, 2013