i EFFECTIVENESS OF THE HEAD TEACHERS’ STRATEGIES USED TO CURB DRUG AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE IN PUBLIC SECONDARYSCHOOLS IN NAIROBI COUNTY, KENYA Selpher K. Cheloti A Thesis Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirement for theAward of the Degree of Doctor ofPhilosophy in Educational Administration University of Nairobi. 2013 ii DECLARATION This thesisis my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other university. ___________________________ Selpher K. Cheloti E8O/81201/2011 Thisthesishas been submitted for examination with ourapproval as UniversitySupervisors __________________________ Dr.UrsullaA. Okoth Lecturer Department of Educational Administration and Planning University of Nairobi __________________________ Dr. Rose N. Obae Lecturer Department of Educational Administration and Planning University of Nairobi iii DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my beloved husbandOmwamiKakaiChelotiand our children NaomiNekesa, Anne ElizabethNakhungu and DeborahAnindo. iv AKNOWLEGEMENTS I thank God who gave me grace and strength for each day for the entire course and the wisdom and patience to write this thesis. I wish to thank my entire family especially my husband Mr.KakaiCheloti for encouraging me to enrol for a PhD programme and supporting me financially during the course.I am grateful to our children; NaomiNekesa, Anne Elizabeth Nakhungu and Deborah Anindofor being patient with me as I spent long hours studying. I am grateful to my parents Mr.&Mrs.Jackson and MilkaIndetie for supporting me in prayer.I wish to appreciate the support of my Nephew MichaelBarasafor helping me understand some of the computer applications that I used to write this document. I cannot forget the kindness and patience of Jacqueline Njuguna who helped with the printing and binding of the document. I wish to sincerely thank my supervisors;Dr.UrsullaOkoth and Dr. Rose Obae who worked tirelessly, sacrificially and meticulously to ensure that this thesis is refined and ready in good time. It was a great joy being supervised by such a dedicated team.Their determination and zeal to work was incredible.I wish to thank Prof. SamsomGunga; dean College of Education and External studies (UON) for processing my defence proceedings and documentation culminating in my graduation.I also thank Dr. GraceNyagah; Chairman Department of Educational AdministrationandPlanning (UON) who was always available to v guide and give information that I sought concerning the programme. Her dedication and diligence to work is such an example to emulate. I thank thehead teachers of secondary schools in Nairobi County for responding to my questionnaires and allowing me to collect data from the students and teachers. I also thank the office of the County Director of Education, Nairobi for availing data on schools, and especially, one Mrs.Mulinge who was very kind and patient, endeavouring to search for any information that I needed from the County office. I wish to appreciate the followinginstitutions that assisted me in different ways.The National Council for Science and Technology, for their efficiency in processing my research permit.The library staff at the University of Nairobi, (Kikuyu campus), Kenyatta University, Catholic University of Eastern Africa, and MasindeMuliro University of Science and Technologyfor allowing me to use their libraries.Iam grateful to my colleagues, the lecturers of Kabete Technical Training Institute, Department of Business studies and the chief Principal for encouraging and supporting me during my studies. Finally I wishto mention with gratitude;Prof.GeneveveWanjala, Dr. Japheth Origa, Dr. P.A. Odundo, Dr. E. Rintaugu, Dr.Grace Nyagah, Dr. IbrahimKhatete, Dr. JeremiahKalai, and Dr.RosemaryImonjeProf. Winston Akalaof the University of Nairobifor sparing time to read and make comments on this document. It is their tireless effort that culminated to the production of this document.Once again, thank you all. vi TABLE OF CONTENT Content Page Title Page ……………………………………………….……….……...................i Declaration……………………………………………………………...................ii Dedication...............................................................................................................iii Acknowledgement..................................................................................................iv Table of Contents......................................................................................….........vi List of Tables........................................................................................................xii List of Figures……………………………….......................................................xv Abbreviationsand Acronyms.................………………………………..............xvi Abstract...............................................................................................................xviii CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study……………………………………..................1 1.2 Statement of the Problem………………………….................................10 1.3 Purpose of the Study……………………………….. ..............................11 1.4 Research Objectives ………………………………….............................11 1.5 Research Questions....................................................................................12 1.6 Research NullHypotheses .........................……………………...............13 1.7 Significance of the Study……………………….………….. ...................14 1.8 Limitationsof the Study……………………………………....................15 1.9 Delimitationsof the Study…………………………………....................16 vii 1.10 Assumptionsof the Study………………………………….....................16 1.11 Definition of Significant Terms…………………………………….........17 1.12Organization of the Study………………………………….. ....................19 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………….. ...................20 2.2Historical Perspective of Drug and Substance Abuse …................................20 2.3 Global and Regional Perspective of Drug Abuse among Students.................22 2.4 Extent and Effects of Drug Abuse in Secondary Schools..............................23 2.5 Curbing Drug and Substance Abuse in Secondary Schools............................25 2.6Strategies used By Head Teachers to Curb Drug andSubstances Abuse in Schools..................................................................28 2.6.1 Effectiveness of School Curriculum as a Strategy used to curb Drug and Substance Abuse…………………………………………………………………29 2.6.2 Effectiveness of Guidance and Counseling as a Strategy used to curb DSA……………………………………………………………………………...33 2.6.3 Effectiveness of School Community Involvement in Curbing DSA in Secondary Schools……………………………………………………………….35 2.6.4 Effectiveness of School Rules as a Strategy for Curbing DSA in Schools..37 2.7 Head Teacher Characteristics That Influence the Choice of Strategies Used to Curb DSA.............................................................................................................38 2.7.1 Influence of Head Teachers’ Age and Gender on Strategies Used toCurbDSA........................................................................................38 viii 2.7.2 Influence of Head Teachers Academic Qualifications and Experience on Strategies used to curb DSA.................................................................................39 2.8 Influence of School Category on Head Teachers’ Choice of Strategies used to curb DSA...............................................................................................................40 2.9 Summary of Literature Review........................................................................41 2.10 Theoretical Framework..................................................................................43 2.11 Conceptual framework..................................................................................47 CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction......................................................................................................50 3.2 Research Design…………………………………………………...................50 3.3 Target Population …………………………………………………................51 3.4 Sample Size and Sampling Technique….........................................................51 3.5 Research Instruments…..................................................................................54 3.6 Validity of the Research Instruments.............................................................56 3.7 Reliability of the Research Instrument...........................................................57 3.8 Data Collection Procedures…........................................................................58 3.9Data Analysis Techniques…...........................................................................59 ix CHAPTER FOUR DATAANALYSIS,PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION 4.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................62 4.2 Instrument Return Rate....................................................................................63 4.3Head Teachers’ Demographic Information.....................................................64 4.4Demographic Information of Heads of G/CDepartments..............................69 4.5 Students’ Demographic Information................................................................70 4.6 School Characteristics......................................................................................73 4.7 Extent and Effects of Drug and Substance Abuse in Schools.........................76 4.8 Effectiveness of the Secondary School Curriculum in Curbing DSA..........100 4.8.1 Areas of Curriculum Used For Curbing DSA............................................ 102 4.8.2 Life Skills Education as a Curriculum Based Strategy used to curb DSA.....................................................................................................................113 4.8.3 Responses from G/C Teachers on Use of Curriculum in curbing DSA.....................................................................................................................115 4.8.4 Effectiveness of the School Curriculum as a Strategyfor Curbing DSA..116 4.9Guidance and Counselling As a Strategy for Curbing DSAin...................121 4.9.1Responses from Teacher Counsellors on G/C Strategy.............................129 4.9.2 Head Teachers’ Role in Guidance and Counselling..................................130 4.9.3 Effectiveness of Guidance and Counselling as a Strategy to Curb DSA...............................................................................................133 x 4.9.4 Teacher Counsellors’View of the Effectiveness of G/C inCurbing DSA.136 4.9.5 Challenges Faced By G/C Teachers in Curbing DSA................................137 4.10 School Community involvement as Strategy for Curbing DSA..................140 4.10.1 School Community Participation in Curbing DSA...................................143 4.11 Influenceof Head Teachers’ Characteristics on Strategiesused toCurb DSA...............................................................................................153 4.11.1 Hypothesis Testing...................................................................................153 4.11.2 Discussions and Interpretation of Hypothesis Ho1.................................161 4.12Influence of School Categories on Choice ofStrategies used tocurbDSA................................................................................................................. ....163 4.12.1 Hypothesis Testing....................................................................................165 4.13Other Strategies Used By Head Teachers to Curb DSA.............................170 4.14Students’ Gender versus Their Attitude to Administrative Strategies........173 4.15Challenges Facing School Heads in Curbing DSA......................................176 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Introduction....................................................................................................179 5.2 Summary of Findings.....................................................................................179 5.3Findings of the Study.....................................................................................181 xi 5.4 Conclusions....................................................................................................186 5.5 Recommendations..........................................................................................189 5.6 Areas Recommended For Further Studies.....................................................192 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................194 APPENDICES Appendix 1 Letterof Introduction ………………..........................................202 Appendix 2 Principals’ Questionnaire.............................................................203 Appendix3Students’ Questionnaire...............................................................211 Appendix 4Interview Guide.........................................................…...............217 Appendix 5 List of Public Schools in Nairobi County....................................218 Appendix6 PearsonCorrelation Tables...........................................................220 Appendix 7 Research Permit............................................................................225 xii LIST OF TABLES Table Page Table 3.1: Target Population and Sample Size Per School Category...................52 Table4.2:Distribution of Head Teachers by Age.................................................65 Table 4.3: Head Teachers,Duration of Service in the Schools.............................66 Table 4.4: HOD Guidance and Counselling’s Duration of Service.......................69 Table 4.5: Distribution of Students byAge...........................................................72 Table 4.6: Reasons for starting Taking Drugs and Substances.............................79 Table 4.7: Drugs and Substances Commonly Abused in the Schools...................80 Table 4.8: Drugs and Substances Commonly Abused in the Schools...................81 Table 4.9: Cause of DSA as Indicatedby Head Teachers.....................................83 Table 4.10: Causes of Drug and Substance Abuse as indicated by students.........85 Table 4.11: Indicators used to Identify Drugs and Substance Abusers.................87 Table 4.12: Students Views of the Action Head Teachers Should Take...............89 Table 4.13: Head Teachers Response on Discipline Cases Associated With DSA...........................................................................................91 Table 4.14: Students Response on Discipline Cases Associated With DSA...........................................................................................92 Table 4.15: Head Teachers’ Responses on Effects of DSA on Student’s Performance...................................................................93 Table 4.16: Students’ Responses oneffects of DSA on Student’s Performance...95 xiii Table 4.17: Principals Response on Effects of DSA on Student’s wellbeing.......98 Table 4.18: Students Response on Effects of DSA on Student’s wellbeing.......99 Table 4.19: Head teachers’ responses on Areas of Curriculum Used to Curb DSA....................................................................................104 Table 4.20: Students’ Responses on Areas of Curriculum Used to Curb DSA...107 Table 4.21: Students Responses on Frequency of Teaching Life Skills..............114 Table 4.22: Head Teachers Responses on Effectiveness of School Curriculum in curbing DSA................................................................................117 Table 4.23: Students Responses on Effectiveness of the School Curriculum in Curbing DSA.............................................................120 Table 4.24: Subjects Covered During G&C Lessons as Indicated by Students.......................................................................122 Table 4.25: Frequency of Drug Abuse counselling Sessions as Reported by head Teachers...............................................................................124 Table 4.26: Frequency of Drug Abuse Counselling Sessions as Reported by Students......................................................................................125 Table 4.27: Head teachers’ Responses on Frequency of Guest Speakers.................................................................................127 Table 4.28: Students’ Responses on Frequency of Guest Speakers....................128 Table 4.29: Number of DSA Cases handled by Head Teachers.........................132 Table 4.30: Principals’ Views of the Effectiveness of Guidance and Counsellingas a Strategy for Curbing DSA in Schools..................134 xiv Table 4.31: Head Teachers’ Views on the Role of School Community in Curbing DSA.......... ........................................................................144 Table 4.32: Students’ Views on the Role of School Community in Curbing DSA...................................................................................146 Table 4.33: Secondary School Curriculum against Age, Gender, Academic Qualification, Experience and Gender..............................................155 Table 4.34: Guidance and Counselling Against Age, Gender, Academic Qualification, Experience and Gender...............................................156 Table 4.35 School Community AgainstAge, Gender, Academic Qualification, Experience and Gender...............................................158 Table 4.36: School Curriculum Verses School Category....................................167 Table 4.37: Guidance and Counselling Verses School Category........................168 Table 4.38: School Community Verses School Category...................................169 Table 4.39: Head Teachers Responses on Effectiveness of Other Strategies Used to Curb DSA............................................................................171 Table 4.40Cross Tabulation of Gender and Attitude towards Strategies............175 xv LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework.......................................................................48 Figure 4.2: Head Teachers’ Highest Academic Qualification...............................68 Figure 4.3: School Category..................................................................................74 Figure 4.4: School Type........................................................................................75 Figure4.5: Head Teachers’View on Seriousness of DSA Problem in Schools...77 Figure 4.6: Students’ View on Seriousness of DSA Problem in Schools.............78 Figure 4.7: Students’ Views of the Effects of DSA on Student’s Health............97 Figure 4.8: Students’ View of the Effectiveness of Guidance and Counselling..135 xvi ABRIVIATIONS ANDACRONYMS AIDS Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome BOG Board of Governors BED Bachelor of Education BSC Bachelor of Science DARE Drug Abuse Resistance Education DSA Drug and Substance Abuse G/C Guidance and Counselling HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus KIE Kenya Institute ofEducation MED Master of Education MOE Ministry ofEducation MSC Master of Science NACADA National Agency for Campaign against Drug Abuse PTA Parents Teachers Association SPSS Statistical Package for Social Science SSA Sub-Saharan Africa xvii UK United Kingdom UNODC United Nations office on Drugs and Crime UN United Nations USA United States of America WHO World Health Organization xviii ABSTRACT In spite of the government efforts in the fight against drug and substance abuse in Kenya, the problem is still rampant among secondary school students. The purpose of the study was to investigate administrative strategies adopted by head teachers in curbing drug and substances abuse in public secondary schools in Nairobi County, Kenya. To assess the effectiveness of the head teachers’ use of the school curriculum as a strategy for curbing DSA among students of public secondary school in Nairobi; to determine the effectiveness of the head teachers’ use of Guidance and Counselling sessions as a strategy for curbing DSA among students in public secondary schools;to establish the effectiveness of the head teachers’ involvement of school community in curbing DSA among students in public secondary school in Nairobi County;to determine the effectiveness the head teachers’ use of school rules as a strategy for curbing DSA in public secondary schools in Nairobi County; to determine how the head teachers’ strategies used to curb DSA are influenced by head teacher characteristics classified as age, gender, qualifications and experience; to establish how the head teachers’ strategies used to curb DSA are influenced by the school category. Literature relating to administrative strategies and curbing DSA in schools was reviewed. The study employed descriptive survey design. The study sample consisted of 35 head teachers, 35 heads of guidance and counselling departments selected by purposive sampling followed by 420 students selected using simple random sampling. Permission to collect data was sought from the National Council for Science and Technology. Data was collected by use of two sets of questionnaires for head teachers and students and interviews conducted with heads of Guidance and Counselling. Content validity of the research instruments was ascertained by a team of experts in Educational Administration and through piloting of the test items while reliability of the instruments was ascertained by a test-re-test technique and a coefficient of stability of 0.875 obtained using the Pearson’s product moment formula. Descriptive as well as inferential statistics were used to analyze data and the results presented in tables graphs and pie charts. The findings show that school curriculum is used to curb DSA however content on DSA in the curriculum was inadequate.Co-curricular activities (sports, drama, music and poems) were more effective in curbing DSA.Guidance and Counselling was the most preferred strategy for curbing drug abuse and all schools visited had a guidance and counselling teacher. The findings show that majority of the head teachers and teacher counsellors lacked the skills for counselling drug abusers.Teacher counsellors also doubled as subject teachers hence lacked time for counselling students. Therefore the benefits of G/C strategy have not been fully harnessed. On school community, lack of cooperation especially from parents frustrated the head teachers’ strategies to curb DSAwhile the community protected drug dealers and sometimes sold drugs to students.Therefore school xix community as a strategy for curbing DSA was not effective. The findings also indicate that head teacher characteristics such as age, gender, qualification and experience influenced their choice of strategies for curbing DSA and that school category also influenced the choice of administrative strategy used to curb DSA. The study concluded that the administrative strategies adopted by head teachersto curb DSA are not effective and that no one strategy can successfully curb drug abuse in secondary schools.Head teachers should use a combination of strategies on different DSA situations.The study recommends thatcontent on DSA in the school curriculum should be beefed up to include causes, types and effects of DSA and additional time provided to teach drug abuse. Further, head teachers and teacher counsellors should be in-serviced to equip them with skills for counselling drug abusers.Headteachers should collaborate with other stake holders in the community like parents, law enforcers, government agencies, NACADA, NGOs and FBOs so as to fight drug abuse from the supply and demand side. Given that expulsion and heavy punishment was highlighted by majority of head teachers and students as a possible strategy to curb DSA, the Ministry of Education could review its policy on punishment and expulsion especially as far as war against drug abuse in schools is concerned. 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study Drug and Substance Abuse among the youth is a major challenge facing the Kenya education sector. It creates social-economic hardships, breeding misery which increases crime, violence and a drain in all affected strata of the society. A survey conducted by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime UNODC (2010), the war against drug abuse is far from over and that drug barons are so powerful and ruthless that they are able to hold at ransom any one standing in the way of their evil trade irrespective of his/her position of authority. Countries like Peru, Bolivia, and Colombia have large plantations of cocaine, while opium poppy a flower like plant from which heroin is produced grows illegally in Pakistan and Afghanistan (Golden crescent) and around Cambodia, Thailand and Laos (Golden triangle) (UNOD, 2010). Drug abuse is a global problem that threatens the political, economic, and social stability and security of many countries; affecting management of schools and disrupting education programs (United Nations, 1998; and National Agency for Campaign against Drug Abuse Authority (NACADA), 2006). Balding (2005) in a national survey conducted in England revealed that up to 53 percent of 14- to 15-year-olds are more likely to have been offered and taken drugs. The opium war of 1839 between Britain and China was triggered by drug 2 trade (Matzigulu, 2006). In 1992, the then UN secretary general Boutros Boutros Ghali lamented the escalation in drug abuse among the youth and emphasised that the war against Drug and Substance Abuse (DSA) should be fought by all nations (United Nations, 2000). He called on all UN member states to enact drug trafficking laws that would significantly reduce the global illicit drug supply and demand (UNODC, 2010). A drug is a substance (other than food) which, when taken, alters the state and functions of the body (UNODC, 2008). Drugs can be taken through the mouth, injection, nostrils or as ointments and pessaries (Ngesu, et al 2008 and Ndirangu, 2004). The term is generally used in reference to a substance taken for therapeutic purpose and as well as abused substances. Drug abuse is the use of any legal (social) or illegal drug or substance when it is detrimental to health and wellbeing, for physical or psychological reasons. Studies have shown that factors such as prolonged or traumatic parental absence, harsh discipline, and failure to communicate on an emotional level, and parental use of drugs may lead to or intensify drug abuse among young people (WHO, 1993). Prevention of Drug and Substance Abuse among the youth should employ knowledge about factors likely to influence their behaviour. The school is the first large-scale socializing organization of which the child becomes a member. Unlike in the family, its members are mostly unrelated (Hansen, 1992). The element of social heterogeneity, coupled with its large size, makes the school a secondary social group. Therefore, whereas the family is essentially an informal 3 socializing agent, the school combines formal (classroom teaching) and informal (peer group influence) processes of socialization. The school uses methods like suspension, expulsion, official mention and rewards as modes of behaviour control. The school therefore becomes the best place for drug abuse intervention and control (Khanyisile, 2005). In the United States, the Safe and Drug-Free Schools Program has reported great success as a federal initiative which has been used to strengthen programs that prevent the use of alcohol, tobacco, drugs, and violence in and around the nation's schools. The program identified a number of ways in which schools could address the problem. Suggestions included monitoring drug use within the school, establishing clear guidelines and penalties for usage, enforcing policies against sales and usage, implementing a comprehensive drug prevention curriculum (for kindergarten through 12th grade), and networking with community agencies and leaders for support and advice (Martinez, 2004). Acts of indiscipline among student have been blamed on use and abuse of drugs in Nigeria leading to establishment of comprehensive drug abuse education and prevention plan, which involves students, teachers, parents, and other members of the community (Odejide, 2006). Lack of morals and deteriorating learning standards and strikes in schools have been blamed on drug abuse by students in Zimbabwe (Siringi, 2003). 4 In March 2009, UN member states committed to elimination or significant reduction in the global illicit drug supply and demand by 2019 (UNODC, 2010). However the world drug report (2011) has indicated minimal success in DSA reduction as drug peddlers become more sophisticated and more countries get involved not only as transit points but as drug consumers (UNODC, 2011). Drug peddlers are reported to be targeting schools as their prime markets; a trend that is worrying considering the fact that drug addiction creates an enabling environment for violence as it gives the abuser a false sense of greatness and power (Mungai, 2007). The mythology behind drug abuse world over has helped fuel the menace among students, who believe that drugs enhance their independence, courage, alertness and class performance (Gitau, 2007). This however is not the case as it leads to rebellion, theft, and bullying among students posing a great challenge to school administration and has been named as one of the major causes of strikes in schools and colleges (Ng’ang’a, 2003; Poipoi, 1999). The role of the head teacher is to develop strategies through the use of school curriculum, staff personnel, student personnel, school finance, school plant, and the school community for effective management of schools (Okumbe, 1999; and Obiero, 2006). Through the secondary school curriculum, content on DSA is taught in Biology, Religious Education, Social Education and Ethics and Life skills. The general objective for teaching the DSA topic is to create awareness and deter the use of drugs by students (KIE, 2002 and 2008). Informal curriculum 5 is also used in the fight against Drug and Substance Abuse through the use of sports, plays and music. The power of sport is far more than symbolic and co- curricular activities such as drama, clubs, debates, and public lectures are used to create DSA awareness in schools (Matsigulu, 2006 and Muraguri, 2004). In 2002, at the Olympic Aid Round Table Forum in Salt Lake City, the then UN Secretary General, Koffi Annan stated that “Sport can play a role in improving the lives of individuals and the whole community”. He encouraged stake holders to involve the youth in sports from an early age to enhance responsibility and professionalism (UNODC, 2011). A variety of sports are available for Kenyan youth, both at school and community levels and the Ministry of Education recommends that all students should participate in sports, clubs and societies for their well being and to reduce idleness that leads to DSA (Republic of Kenya, 2006). Guidance and counselling has been instrumental in the fight against DSA according to (Chand, 2008 and Mungai, 2007). Mungai (2007) further noted that individual counselling, group counselling, peer counselling, mentoring, and role modelling are used to help students overcome drug abuse. Through counselling and mentoring, students are taught the dangers of DSA and how to overcome peer pressure to smoke or drink (Botvin, 2000). Republic of Kenya (2008) indicates that head teachers and teachers are involved in prevention, control and mitigation of DSA through formal and non formal curriculum. The study also emphasizes 6 role modeling where students learn responsible behavior from their teachers. Further more, the teachers’ code of ethics and conduct prohibits smoking and drinking in the presence of students (Republic of Kenya, 2005). The community around the school can negatively or positively influence the behaviour of a school. Drugs and substances are sold to students with the knowledge of some parents (Wangai, 2001). NACADA (2006) and Muma (2006) recorded that the most common source of alcohol consumed by students was the community in the vicinity of the school and that drugs enter schools at the beginning of the term, as students carry them along with their personal effects. Head teachers should use parents’ day, annual general meetings, prize giving days to sensitise parents on dangers of DSA and elicit their support in combating the drug abuse menace. Furthermore they should involve respected persons, leaders of faith based organizations and role models in the community to discuss DSA during such occasions (Ndirangu, 2004 and Kimori, 2010). Members of the community need to report suspected drug dealers to the police and provincial administration for apprehension while parents should be keen to note behavioural changes in their children and seek help at the earliest opportunity. Wangai (2001) suggested strategies geared towards community involvement where parents, religious leaders, provincial administration, play an active role in drug prevention programmes. Maithya (2009) emphasized that community 7 members, starting with the family should instil moral values among the youth to help them become useful members of society. This is based on the fact that, in traditional African society, upbringing of children was a communal role and not only that of the immediate family (Maithya, 2009). School heads have power by virtue of their positions to enhance discipline in schools by punishing students caught engaging in drug abuse, enforce school rules, inspect students’ belongings regularly and act on information about drug abusing students (Eshiwani, 1993). Despite all the efforts, DSA is still rampant and affects school administration with chronic cases of indiscipline, academic underachievement, socially unacceptable sexual adventures, health complications, massive school dropouts and sometimes death among student victims (Ndirangu, 2004 and Kimori, 2010). This study investigates the effectiveness of strategies used by head teachers, recommend areas for modification or suggest more effective methods of dealing with the drug menace. NACADA (2006) and Munyoki (2008) stated that students staying in towns had a higher risk of having abused drugs compared to those in rural areas and that students in Nairobi County had the highest prevalence in consumption of inhalants, miraa and tobacco. Ease of availability was cited by Gitau (2007) as one of the reasons behind this trend given that many public secondary schools in Nairobi County are day schools and students are in contact with drug peddlers on a daily basis. Other causes cited were the cosmopolitan nature of the city, influx of illegal immigrants, the refugee problem and slum life coupled with poverty 8 (Republic of Kenya, 2009). Makokha (1984) and Ndetei (2004) showed that Drug and Substance Abuse was prevalent among secondary school students in Nairobi and began as early as before age 11 years while in primary school. Strategies used by head teachers to curb DSA such as guidance and counselling, role modelling, diagonal communication and punishment have not reduced DSA which is still rampant among learners (Republic of Kenya, 2008). Drug and Substance Abuse has been associated with escalating incidents of rape, students’ unrest, burning of schools, massive school dropout and dismissal academic performance (Republic of Kenya, 2009). Studies show that some head teachers and teachers lack the skills and knowledge for tackling DSA problems while others deny that the DSA problem exists among their students (NACADA, 2008). Members of the society are of the view that DSA problems among students should be tackled at school (Ndirangu, 2004). Teachers need to understand the environment around their institutions, identify the characteristics of drug users, and know types of drugs used by their names and sources, and trends in drug abuse (NACADA, 2006) in order to tackle the drug abuse menace. Studies by Ng’ang’a (2003); Ngesu, Ndiku and Masese (2008); and Maithya (2009) established that guidance and counselling was useful in controlling onset of drug abuse among students and could also be used in the rehabilitation stage. 9 Ng’ang’a (2003) recommended strategies that would combatively handle students in the drug abusing stage. Ngesu et al (2008) concluded that no one strategy could successfully curb drug abuse in a school environment. They concur that a combination approach that deals with awareness, prevention and intervention on abusers and follow up was the best way to deal with DSA in schools. It is for such reasons that this study has been conceived with an aim of suggesting the most appropriate strategy or combination of strategies that would work to curb DSA in different school categories. Imbosa (2002) established that drug use and abuse occurs in the student population as result of a complex range of factors including parental engagement in substance abuse, depression, anxiety, learning difficulties and low self-esteem, all of which are beyond the scope of the programmes put in place by the schools to address the problem. These findings have in part formed the basis for this study, which will seek to explore the role of the school community as a strategy for curbing drug abuse among students in Nairobi County. Khanyisile (2005) argues that there is official ambivalence towards substance use in Kenya. Alcohol and tobacco are a cause of ill-health, but are legal with the two substances being a source of tax-income; the brewing and use of indigenous alcoholic drinks is mainly illegal, yet the production and use of alcoholic drinks on an industrial scale is extensive and legal. 10 Khat (Miraa) is a drug whose abuse results in dependence, yet the Government treats it as a valued export commodity competing with tea and coffee in importance. According to Khanyisile (2005), this is a contributing factor to drug abuse by Kenyan youth. The above studies showed that various factors contribute to Drug and Substance Abuse among school learners and require a multi disciplinary approach to tackle the problem. The researcher is will explore the strategies for curbing the DSA menace which, if not checked, could have grave repercussions on the youth of Kenya, attainment of educational goals, and the growth and development of the Nation. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Drug and Substance Abuse is rampant among students in secondary schools in Nairobi, a trend that is fuelled by proximity to drug peddlers, high levels of poverty, ease of availability and slum life which make many students vulnerable to the allure of drugs (NACADA, 2006; and Republic of Kenya, 2008). Kenya Governments’ attempt to curb Drug and Substance Abuse is evident with the establishment of an inter-ministerial drug control coordinating committee (1995), the drug master plan (1999), and establishment of NACADA (2001). Others include the National strategy on prevention, control and mitigation of DSA in Kenya 2008-2013 (Republic of Kenya, 2008), policy documents, Sessional papers and enactment of alcoholic drinks control act 2010. 11 As a policy strategy to curb DSA, the Ministry of Education established DSA departments in every district, infused DSA in the school curriculum (KIE, 2002; 2008) and established Guidance and Counselling departments in all schools (Republic of Kenya, 2008). Head teachers also use drama, sports, music, and resource persons to further create DSA awareness (Muraguri, 2004; Matsigulu 2006; and Mungai, 2007). Studies by Ng’ang’a (2003), Kwamanga, (2003) Muraguri, (2004) Matsigulu (2006), King’endo (2007), Mungai (2007), Munyoki, (2008), Maithya, (2009), Kimori, (2010) explored other aspects of DSA but none explored head teachers strategies in curbing the problem. This study investigated the effectiveness of head teachers’ strategies used to curb Drug and Substance Abuse in public secondary schools in Nairobi County, Kenya. 1.3 Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to investigate the effectiveness of head teachers’ strategies used to curb Drug and Substance Abuse in public secondary schools in Nairobi County, Kenya. 1.4 Research Objectives The study was guided by the following objectives; i) To assess the effectiveness of the head teachers’ use of the school curriculum as a strategy for curbing DSA among students of public secondary school in Nairobi. 12 ii) To determine the effectiveness of the head teachers’ use of Guidance and Counselling sessions as a strategy for curbing DSA among students in public secondary schools. iii) To establish the effectiveness of the head teachers’ involvement of school community in curbing DSA among students in public secondary school in Nairobi County. iv) To determine the effectiveness the head teachers’ use of school rules as a strategy for curbing DSA in public secondary schools in Nairobi County. v) To determine how the head teachers’ strategies used to curb DSA are influenced by head teacher characteristics classified as age, gender, qualifications and experience. vi) To establish how the head teachers’ strategies used to curb DSA are influenced by the school category. 1.5 Research Questions The study sought to answer the following research questions; i) To what extent is the head teachers’ use of school curriculum effective in curbing Drug and Substance Abuse in public secondary schools Nairobi County? ii) To what extent is the head teachers’ use of guidance and counselling sessions effective in curbing DSA among students in public secondary school in Nairobi County? 13 iii) How effective is the head teachers’ involvement of the school community in curbing DSA among students in public secondary schools in Nairobi County? iv) How effective is the head teachers’ use of school rules as a strategy for curbing DSA in public secondary schools in Nairobi County? v) To what extent does the head teachers’ characteristics of age, gender, qualifications and experience influence their choice of strategy in curbing DSA in secondary schools Nairobi County? vi) To what extent does the school category influence the choice of strategy used by head teachers to curb DSA in public secondary schools in Nairobi County? 1.6 Null Hypotheses From objective (v) and (vi), the following null hypotheses were formed Ho1: There is no significant relationship between head teachers’ characteristics and strategies used to curb DSA in secondary schools when the characteristics are classified as age, gender, academic qualifications, and experience. Ho2: There is no significant relationship between schools and strategies used by head teachers to curb DSA when the schools are classified as National, Provincial, and District. 14 1.7 Significance of the Study The findings of the study could help the Ministry of Education (MOE) to better understand the current situation and accordingly make changes to address the factors that contribute to drug abuse in secondary schools. The findings could also be used by the Government in setting up more DSA specialised intervention and rehabilitation programmes in the country where students could find help. Kenya, like many other developing countries, is faced with the social problem of high rates of drug abuse. The challenge to the Government is that the percentage of drug abusers, especially the youth increases yearly despite Government efforts to curb the problem. Drug and Substance Abuse not only threatens the life of individual students. The current study may be useful in contributing to the general body of knowledge in this area and provide the potentiality of schools to contribute to the fight against DSA in the country. The DSA problem among students and in the country as a whole keeps evolving in terms of the nature, drug language, distribution methods and intake methods. Head teachers may use these findings to assess the effectiveness of strategies used to curb DSA and where necessary, modify to enhance their effectiveness or come up with new strategies that address current trends in the DSA world. 15 The Government, school administrators and teachers could use the findings to identify factors hindering effectiveness of strategies for curbing drug abuse and, where possible, eradicate the problem. This would help in promoting a drug-free school environment and better academic performance, thus improving the standards of education in the country. Curriculum developers may utilise the study findings to enhance content on DSA and increase time allocation in the syllabus for teaching Drug and Substance Abuse. The teachers’ training colleges could use the findings to include lessons on DSA in the teacher training curriculum to enhance their awareness of the subject so that they can critically talk about DSA when handling their subject. The findings may be used as basis for formulating new theories that help explain students’ behaviour and the best approaches of handling such scenarios in schools. Finally, the findings of the study may add to a pool of knowledge in Educational Administration and provide data for further research. 1.8 Limitation of the Study Best and Kahn (2000) observed that limitations are those conditions beyond the control of the researcher that may place restrictions on the conclusions of the study and their application to other situations. Concealing of important information to avoid painting a bad picture of themselves or their school was a 16 probable limitation anticipated by the researcher. To overcome this limitation, respondents were assured of confidentiality. Another limitation is that drug abuse is a criminal offence and school administrators and teacher counselors could withhold or modify crucial information that the researcher needs for fear of further interrogation. This limitation was addressed by designing some items in the questionnaire with a Likert scale where respondents select the most appropriate response. During the interview, some questions were rephrased. The researcher also reassured the respondents that the study aimed at investigating the strategies used by head teachers and was not necessarily investigating Drug and Substance Abuse prevalence in respective sampled schools. 1.9 Delimitation of the Study The study was restricted to 68 public secondary schools in Nairobi County and delimited to responses from head teachers, Heads of Guidance and Counselling Departments, and students of public secondary schools. 1.10 Assumptions of the Study This study was carried out on the assumptions that; i) Drug and Substance Abuse is a major problem affecting administration of public secondary schools in Nairobi County. 17 ii) head teachers are capable of identifying students abusing drugs and substances in their schools iii) head teachers have put in place strategies for curbing DSA in schools iv) the researcher will get honest answers from respondents 1.11 Definition of Significant Terms Addiction refers to the state of being mentally and physically dependent on a substance. Administrative strategy refers to a course of action that the head teacher may take to curb Drug and Substance Abuse in the school in relation to administrative tasks of the head teacher such as school curriculum, and school community relations. Curbing refers to check or restrain a person from doing something. Curriculum refers to planned activities to enable students acquire desired knowledge, skills and attitudes in the school which empower them to resist DSA. Drug and Substance Abuse refers to the administration of any drug in a manner that diverts from approved medical or social patterns within a given culture. Drug refers to any natural or synthetic, licit or illicit substance that is used to 18 produce physiological or psychological effects in human beings or higher order animals. Drugs of abuse include alcohol, cigarettes, and bhang, Miraa, cocaine, heroine and prescription drugs. Guidance and Counselling refers to a process of helping individuals understand themselves and make informed decisions affecting them. Head teacher refers to the head of a school, school administrator, or the Principal; these terms have been used interchangeably in this study and refer to the same person. Hard drugs refer to those drugs that depress, stimulate or hallucinate humans; also known as illicit drugs like heroine, cocaine mandrax and bhang. School community refers to individuals or groups that have an interest or influence on happenings in the school. They include; parents, local administration, BOG, community living around the school. Strategy refers to a plan, or a well thought course of action for curbing DSA among secondary school students. Province/County refers to an area of jurisdiction headed by Provincial/County Director of Education. The two terms have been used interchangeably in this study and refer to the same area. 19 1.12 Organization of the Study The study is organized in five chapters. Chapter one deals with the research problem and its clarifying components including the background to the study, problem statement, research objectives, hypotheses, limitations, delimitations, and assumptions of the study. Chapter two carries a review of literature on drug substance abuse among students in public secondary schools from a global and regional perspective, national level and narrowed down to DSA among students in Nairobi County. It includes the head teachers’ strategies in curbing DSA highlighted as; curriculum and instruction, guidance and counselling, school community relations and head teacher position power. A summary of literature review is presented followed by Theoretical and conceptual framework. Chapter three discuses research methodology covering research design, target population and sample size. Research instruments, reliability and validity of the research instruments are discussed followed by the procedure for data analysis. Chapter four, deals with data analysis, presentation and interpretation. Chapter five presents a summary of the study findings, conclusions and recommendations based on study findings and suggested areas for further studies. 20 CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Introduction This chapter presents the relevant literature reviewed on Drug and Substance Abuse and strategies adopted by head teachers’ in curbing the problem. Historical facts, literature on drug abuse among students globally, regionally, in Kenya and Nairobi County are examined. Literature on the role of school curriculum, Guidance and Counselling, school community in curbing DSA; and head teacher and school characteristics that influence the choice of strategy used have been reviewed. Literature on the extent and effects, of drug abuse on students has also been explored. Theories upon which the study is anchored have been explored followed by a conceptual framework linking the study variables. 2.2 Historical Perspective of Drug and Substance Abuse A drug is any natural or artificial chemical that causes changes in the body or mind or both when taken into the body. Drug use is as old as man. History tells that the Chinese used opium as a cure for dysentery before the 18th century. European countries (Britain and Holland) were known to exchange opium grown in their colonies for tea and silk from China (UNODC, 2007 and Matzigulu, 2006). In 1839, war broke out between the British and the Chinese, which came to 21 be known as the opium war. This war was caused by China’s refusal to buy India’s opium from Britain after discovering its dangers (United Nations, 2003). The Government of Kenya declared war against DSA in the early 1990’s, with the establishment of the Anti-Narcotics police unit in 1983 and the enactment of stringent laws to counter trade and consumption of illicit drugs (Republic of Kenya, 2008). In August 1999 the Government released the report of the presidential commission on Devil worship which was linked to devil worship. In March 2000 the Kenya police seized 4.8 tones (worth of Kshs. 980 million) of Hashish. In 1999, 436 acres of Bhang were destroyed in Mt. Kenya forest. The Interpol (International Police) has been reported as spending about 60 percent of its budget fighting drug related crimes (Republic of Kenya, 2008). The number of countries involved in drug trade has increased to alarming proportions and consignments seized by Interpol and other security apparatus worldwide continue to perplex many. New trends in production, transportation, consumption and drug trade have continued to emerge (UNODC, 2011). The education sector has been severely affected as a majority of the youth in many countries are found in schools and colleges. According to Ndetei (2004), HIV and AIDS will physically kill the youth, while drugs and substance abuse will psychologically, behaviourally, and physically kill them. 22 2.3 Global and Regional Perspective of Drug Abuse among Students Drug control has been on the global agenda for more than a century (UNODC, 2008), and dates back to the Hague convention of 1912 (UNODC, 2007). In March 2009, United Nations member states committed to elimination or significant reduction in the global illicit drug supply and demand by 2019 (UNODC, 2010). According to the world drug report UNODC (2007), about 200 million people in the world use drugs each year with heroin and cocaine being the most abused drugs in Europe and Asia. In South America, the most abused drug is cocaine and in Africa, the most abused drug is cannabis sativa (UNODC, 2007). Cases of rebellion, truancy, bullying, poor academic performance and violence in schools world over have been linked to Drug and Substance Abuse among students (United Nations, 2000). In 1988, the then UN secretary general Peres de Cueller, while addressing the UN Security council noted that drug related crimes had reached alarming proportions. He said; drug abuse and drug trafficking had already claimed millions of lives, and all nations of the world were vulnerable (King’endo, 2007). Every member state was instructed to be vigilant and collaborate with each other in fighting the vice. Head teachers in America and the United Kingdom identified a number of ways in which schools could address the problem. Suggestions included monitoring drug use within the school, establishing clear guidelines and penalties 23 for usage, enforcing policies against sales and usage, implementing a comprehensive drug prevention curriculum (for kindergarten through 12th grade), and networking with community agencies and leaders for support and advice (Martinez, 2004). In Africa, the drug problem is part of the larger social problem that affects Sub- Saharan African (SSA) nations which have been transformed from transit points in an international drug network to consumer countries (Affinity, 1999). Three decades ago, in a workshop on alcoholism and drug addiction in Africa held in Nairobi Kenya, poverty, moral decadence and lack of goodwill among the leaders were found to be major hindrances to the fight against drug related crime in many African countries (Olatuwara and Odejide, 1974). However the situation is not different today as indicated by Odejide (2006) who further blamed inability to decisively deal with drug abuse in many African countries and schools on rampant corruption and involvement of organised cartels in the drug trade. 2.4 Extent and Effects of Drug Abuse in Secondary Schools in Kenya Drug and Substance Abuse is one of the major public health problems in Kenya. Its prevalence is estimated to be highest among young adults of ages 15-29 (Republic of Kenya, 2008). However studies have shown that children become drug dependants having suffered exposure to drugs from their abusing parents. Such children have a high propensity to become drug addicts long before their 24 teenage (Munyoki, 2008). Drug abuse cuts across gender, race and Nationality and Kenya is fast becoming a “narcotic state” (Republic of Kenya, 2008). Surveys conducted indicate that there is an increase in the number of addicts especially in Nairobi, Mombasa and Malindi (Republic of Kenya, 2009). The report shows that Kenya is an important transit point for drugs and substances from sources in South America, to export destination in Europe and USA. The inquiry conducted by the Kenya National Assembly select committee into students unrest found that some of the strikes and riots experienced in Kenyan schools in the year 2008 where school property was destroyed, and students’ lives lost were caused by Drug and Substance Abuse among students (Republic of Kenya, 2009 and Ngigi, 2010). Kaguthi (2004) showed that drug abuse was on the increase and the worst affected schools are those in big towns, noting that Nairobi was worst hit. The study further explained that many public secondary schools in Nairobi County are day schools and students and drug peddlers intermingled freely on a daily basis. Students also access drugs during school outings as they are left to interact freely with those from other schools and members of the public (NACADA, 2006). The abuse of drugs causes major health, academic and discipline problems and is one of the greatest challenges for head teachers in public secondary schools that require comprehensive strategies to curb. 25 2.5 Curbing Drug and Substance Abuse in Secondary Schools Drug and Substance Abuse in secondary schools in Nairobi is fuelled by the Influx of illegal immigrants, refugees, and lack of tight security along the borders coupled with poverty and slum life (Kaguthi, 2004). Reports from the Mathari Mental Hospital indicate that drug abuse is one of the main causes of mental illness among the youth, and that the population of secondary school students in rehabilitation centres was increasing (Ngigi, 2010). Hansen (1992) recorded that drug abuse causes thrombosis, heart disease, liver cirrhosis, impotence, barrenness, cancer and ultimately death. Dangers such as these have informed Governments’ fight against DSA by establishing Drug and Substance Abuse departments in every district and incorporating subjects with content on DSA in the school curriculum among other sensitization programmes which schools undertake to create drug abuse awareness (Republic of Kenya, 2008; KIE, 2002 and 2008). In the 1990s, the Government introduced self help groups referred to as alcoholic anonymous (AA) and narcotics anonymous (NA) where individual drug addicts could seek help without the fear of victimization (KIPPRA, 2006). These groups have been instrumental in providing support to addiction and recovery victims in all parts of the country but more so at the coastal towns of Mombasa and Malindi (KIPPRA, 2006). NACADA has established a toll free helpline (1192) which members of 26 the public can use to seek help on Drug and Substance Abuse. On January 11th 2011 while launching the form one selection process, the Minister for Education Prof. Sam Ongeri further directed the establishment of a unit to help curb drug abuse in schools; the unit was to incorporate assistance from the anti narcotics police unit in dealing with DSA in schools (Daily Nation, January 11th, 2011). The Minister suggested incorporation of the police unit on the basis that they had crucial information and experience in dealing with drug related crimes and would be key in informing decisions on the best strategies for curbing the menace. Police have also been used in America and United Kingdom to reinforce implementation of drug abuse programmes in schools (Botvin, 2000; and Maithya, 2009). A study by KIPPRA (2006) suggested that Government agencies, sports and leisure clubs, parents, teacher counsellors and the law must work together to curb drug abuse. Key areas of intervention according to this study were; prosecuting those involved in peddling drugs, sensitizing students on dangers of DSA, involving the community, media in the campaign and identifying and eliminating sources and channels of supply. The study also suggested strengthening of guidance and counselling and tightening and improving surveillance and inspection in schools. 27 Ndetei (2004) studied the association between substance abuse and the socio- demographic characteristics of students in 17 public secondary schools in Nairobi. The findings showed that alcohol and cigarettes were commonly abused and began as early as before age 11 years. This study further recommended community involvement and parental guidance in addressing Drug and Substance Abuse. Cheloti (2009) in a study on principals’ management styles and students’ unrest in Nairobi found that DSA affected administration of schools in Nairobi and had led to strikes by students that were premeditated and very destructive. The study emphasised the importance of curbing drug abuse in schools in order to reduce students’ unrest. A study conducted by Kinyanjui (1976) showed that, if society was to address student behaviour that leads to strikes, concerted efforts have to be made to curb drug abuse among students. Hence the current study to fill the gap. The dilemma as recorded by Makokha (1984) was that some head teachers and teachers expressed lack of sufficient knowledge on prevention and management of Drug and Substance Abuse among students. A study by NACADA (2007) indicates that there is a shortage of drug abuse counsellors, treatment and rehabilitation services and lack of knowledge among the people on such services. NACADA (2008) show an upward trend in consumption of both licit and illicit drugs by students. This study is conceived out of the need to establish 28 comprehensive strategies to deal with Drug and Substance Abuse in secondary schools. 2.6 Strategies used by Head Teachers to Curb Drug and Substances Abuse in Schools The head teacher implements educational systems and procedures in a school, takes care of students’ welfare and provides a friendly environment for teaching and learning (Mullins, 2005). They spell out the aims and objectives to be achieved in the school and strategies to direct individual efforts (Kombo, 1998). A strategy is a tactic for doing something, or a plan for achieving a goal (Fowler and Fowler, 1988). According to studies by Mungai (2007) and Ouru (2009), there is need to demystify the counselling process and equip all teachers with basic counselling skills in order to make counselling services accessible to the learners. The studies emphasised the need for teachers to have a positive attitude when counselling students. Eneh and Stanley (2004) explained that majority of drugs and substance abuse among the youth starts in school, and therefore the school population is the best place for early detection, prevention and management of Drug and Substance Abuse. Kaguthi (2004) and the NACADA team surveyed drug abuse among the youth aged between 10 and 24 years and found that the majority of the students 29 who abused substances were in secondary schools and universities but did not explore strategies for head teachers to control this problem, hence the need for this study. A survey by preventive health education on youth involvement in drugs and responsibility in prevention showed that 94 percent of respondents believed that DSA is a matter to be dealt with by teachers (Ndirangu, 2004). King’endo (2007) studied the incident and extent of drug abuse among secondary school students in Nairobi, 64 percent of the head teachers interviewed disagreed that drug abuse was rampant in their schools, while 21 percent did not know whether students abuse drugs or not. This shows the disclaimer that compromises strategies used to curb DSA as some head teachers make no effort to use them while DSA continues to affect learners. This study takes an approach where it explores strategies used by head teachers such as curriculum and instruction, guidance and counselling, school rules and school community relations, exploring the use of police, religious organisations, Ministry of Education policies on DSA, local administration, PTA and BOG to curb Drug and Substance Abuse in schools. The study also expects that the schools’ administrators have put in place other strategies apart from those investigated in the study. 2.6.1 Effectiveness of School Curriculum as a Strategy used to curb Drug and Substance Abuse 30 The school environment provides the standards, against which young people test behaviour, and school staff serve as highly influential role models by which adolescents and pre-adolescents judge themselves (Guy, 1981; and Pillai, 2008). Time spent in sports and other co-curricular activities provides additional opportunity for the development of relationships with advisers and coaches. This, in turn, provides a unique opportunity to engage in valuable prevention efforts (Matsingulu, 2006 and Muraguri, 2004). Many educators recognize that Drug and Substance Abuse among students are significant barriers to the achievement of educational objectives. Furthermore, Governmental agencies and local school districts frequently mandate that schools provide health education classes to students, including content on Drug and Substance Abuse (Botvin, 2000; and Republic of Kenya, 2008). In the United States, the Safe and Drug-Free Schools Program is a comprehensive federal initiative funded by the U.S. Department of Education, which is designed to strengthen programs that prevent the use of alcohol, tobacco, drugs, and violence in and around the nation's schools. In order to receive federal funding under this program, school districts are expected to develop a comprehensive education and prevention plan, which involves students, teachers, parents, and other members of the community (Martinez, 2004). 31 In Kenya, a multi-disciplinary approach has been used to infuse DSA content in the school curriculum. The Kenya Institute of Education developed the life skills syllabus with an aim of equipping learners with knowledge, skills and attitudes to cope with social pressure and relate well with other members of the society (KIE, 2008). Life skills has its bases in the Bandura's social learning theory which assumes that drug use is functional; that it is socially learned through modelling, imitation, and reinforcement; and that it is influenced by an adolescent's cognition, attitudes, and beliefs (Bandura, 1986). The curricular include teaching of generic personal self-management skills and social skills. The subject is compulsory, but not examinable and is taught from Form one to Form four. However, much emphasis has been given to topics like communication, self esteem, conflict resolution, stress management, peer pressure, relationships, anxiety, assertiveness and violence among others. There is no proper emphasis given to DSA. Drug abuse is merely mentioned as a part of sub-topics in the main syllabus topics like self esteem, anxiety and violence (KIE, 2008). Within the Form four Religious education syllabus, alcohol, other drugs and their effects are covered as a sub-topic under the topic ‘Christian approaches to leisure’ (KIE, 2002) while in biology, the effects of drugs on the brain is mentioned in Form four under the topic ‘co-ordination, response and irritability’. This study explored the effectiveness of the secondary school curriculum as a strategy used by head teachers to curb DSA. 32 Awareness campaigns by NACADA, religious leaders, clinical psychologists and role models in society have also been stepped up in some schools to support information gained in class room lessons (Republic of Kenya, 2009). It is clear that schools have become the major focus of drug and alcohol abuse education and prevention activities for youth around the world as they offer access to large numbers of youth during the years that they typically begin to use drugs and alcohol (Botvin, 2000). Kabiru (2009) found that topics in the school curriculum were helping students deal with DSA problems. Majority of the teachers (68%) reported that the curriculum was not effective in dealing with DSA. This study will establish views of head teachers, teachers and students in Nairobi County on the effectiveness of the school curriculum. Mutsotso (2004) found that teaching social education and ethics to students equipped them with lifelong skills to deal with peer pressure and a sense self worth which were thought to be key factors in controlling onset of drug abuse. Muraguri (2004) indicated that the demand for academic excellence had forced school heads to overlook co-curricular activities in order to concentrate on examinable curriculum. The study showed that the move had increased stress levels in students causing them to engage in drug abuse. This study will further explore the extent to which co-curricular activities are used by head teaches to curb DSA in schools. 33 On the contrary, Hansen (1992) found that the etiology of Drug and Substance Abuse is complex, and prevention strategies that rely primarily on information dissemination are not effective in changing behaviour in American schools. In the UK, policies and programmes like the National Healthy Schools Programme in England have been developed to boost information dissemination to students in order to empower them to resist Drug and Substance Abuse (Buckley and White, 2007). While studies by Hansen and Buckley were conducted in US and UK respectively, this study explores the Kenyan situation and seeks to establish whether the knowledge imparted to students through the school curriculum is effective in empowering them to resist Drug and Substance Abuse. 2.6.2 Effectiveness of Guidance and Counseling as a Strategy used to curb DSA Guidance as an educational construct involves those experiences that assist each learner to understand and accept him or herself and live effectively in his/her society. It comprises a range of processes designed to enable individuals to make informed choices and transitions related to their educational, vocational and personal development (Chand, 2008). The Ministry of Education (1977) defines guidance as a process concerned with determining and providing for; the developmental needs of learners through public lectures, peer counselling, group and individual counselling. This aims at helping individuals both as part of a 34 group and at the personal level. According to MoE (1988); Nasibi (2003); and Wangai (2001), schools’ guidance and counseling departments should be headed by head teachers and senior teachers. According to studies by Mungai (2007) and Ouru (2009), the notion of guidance and counselling is miss-understood by learners, parents and the general public who constitute stakeholders in education sector. The counselling process therefore needs to be demystified to make it more effective in curbing DSA Schools invite officials from NACADA, Ministry of Health and Ministry of Education to conduct awareness campaigns so as to curb DSA (Republic of Kenya, 2008; NACADA, 2008; Gitau, 2007). The study wishes to establish how head teachers use guidance and counselling as a strategy to curb Drug and Substance Abuse in schools. Mungai (2007) found that educational guidance and counseling is effective dealing with social and psychological problems including drug abuse. Further more, the study indicated that peer counselling, mentoring, group counselling, and role modelling are means of helping students overcome drug addiction. Her study was however conducted in Nyeri and Mbeere districts of central Kenya. This study sought to establish if guidance and counselling strategy is effective in curbing DSA among urban students in Nairobi County. A study by Ouru (2008) asserted that guidance programmes can only meet the needs of the students if they are developmental, preventive and remedial rather 35 than crisis oriented. This study went out to check how frequent head teachers in Nairobi County conducted drug abuse counselling sessions in schools. Ouru’s study was conducted in Nyamira which is a rural county; the current study is in schools in an urban environment of the city of Nairobi. Mentoring and accommodative leadership styles have successfully been used in some schools in dealing with social problems like Drug and Substance Abuse (Chand, 2008). Kin’gendo (2007) found that peer counselling by trained fellow students and rehabilitated youth was effective in some schools. Wangai (2001), asked school heads to identify student drug abusers for guidance and counseling and rehabilitation before they become unmanageable and begin to influence other students. The social influence model that targets adolescent drug-use believes and resistance skills has so far proved that Drug and Substance Abuse can be tackled successfully using guidance and counselling (Botvin, 2000). These programs have been used world over and have shown significant changes in students’ drug use, attitude and behaviour. They employ strategies such as role-playing, group feedback, peer counselling, and mentoring to reshape adolescent attitudes about drug use (Botvin, 2000; and Republic of Kenya, 2008). 2.6.3 Effectiveness of School Community Involvement in Curbing DSA Wangai (2001) reported that members of the community around the school can negatively or positively influence the behaviour of a school and that, drugs and 36 substances were sold to students with the knowledge of some parents. Ndirangu (2004) cautioned parents against taking a low profile while DSA consumes the youth. NACADA (2006) and Muma (2006) found that the most common source of alcohol was the community in the vicinity of the school supplying about 42 - 55 percent of the total alcohol consumed by students. They further showed that drugs enter schools at the beginning of the term, as students carry them along with their personal effects. Some are for personal use while others could be for sell to fellow students. Botvin (2000) emphasized that school heads should adopt strategies geared towards educating learners on dangers of drug abuse to prevent indulgence and enable them avoid high-risk situations where they are likely to experience peer pressure to smoke, drink, or use drugs. Wangai (2001) called for concerted efforts between the police, local provincial administration, the community around the school and parents to eliminate drugs from the school environment. The study further called on Head teachers to use parents’ day, annual general meetings, prize giving days to sensitise parents on dangers of DSA and elicit their support in curbing DSA. They should involve respected persons and role models in the community to discuss DSA during such occasions. Odejide (2006) explained that drug policies that are skewed towards formal control measures may not encourage community participation. Well-coordinated civil society participation is necessary in the control of drug problems in schools and in Africa as a whole in order to 37 achieve a balance between supply and demand reduction efforts. 2.6.4 Effectiveness of School Rules as a Strategy for Curbing DSA School rules are a set of written instructions that set parameters of the day to day operations of students in a school (Odhiambo, 2009). Rule are developed and implemented by Head teachers and teachers within the school environment. Head teachers have legitimate power by virtue of their office to enforce desired course of action in their schools and expect obedience (Okumbe, 1999). A survey by NACADA (2006) and Kimori (2010) hinted that most drugs enter schools at the beginning of the term, as students carry them along with their personal effects, further more; some members of school community also grow drugs and disguise them with ordinary flowers. This study went out to check if head teachers have used their position power to develop and enforce rules in the school that could deter DSA; like inspecting students’ belongings and checking school compounds regularly for any suspicious plants punishing or excluding students found in possession of drugs and substances. Hansen (1992) suggested that head teachers should formulate rules that deter students from engaging in Drug and Substance Abuse. They should use rewards to reinforce good behaviour and punishment to deter noncompliance to school 38 rules on DSA. (Obiero, 2006). Cheloti (2009) found that DSA was a leading cause of strikes and violence in schools. This argument has further been reinforced by the drug and alcohol theory which states that alcohol consumption facilitates aggressive behaviour and increases the risk of being the victim of a violent act (Giancola, 2000). Obiero (2006) and Eshiwani (1993) also emphasised the need for head teachers to exert their position power in directing students’ efforts towards discipline and good academic performance. Obiero (2006) further showed that head teachers should use punishment, suspension and to curb DSA. 2.7 Head Teacher Characteristics That Influence the Choice of Strategies Used to Curb DSA The study explored factors that may directly influence strategies used by head teachers to curb Drug and Substance Abuse in schools. Head teacher characteristics such as age, gender, academic qualifications and experience were examined. 2.7.1 Influence of Head Teachers’ Age and Gender on Choice of Strategies Used to Curb DSA Studies done by Mokiru (2003), Misuro (2004), Gertude (2006) and Ouru (2008) showed that principals’ age had an effect on their attitudes and could influence their preferred choice of action on school issues. The studies found that principals aged between 35-47 years had a positive attitude towards provision of guidance 39 and counselling as a corrective strategy. According to Ouru (2008), older principals were less ambitious, have no interest in recognition, and are less motivated to take corrective action on students. This gives students under them lee way to abuse drugs and substances. Gender of the principal also influences their attitudes. Studies by Brenner (1987) on female head teachers approach to administration and management of secondary schools showed that male principals had believed that their leadership at any level was God given hence could not be disputed. They believe that men have always been and will always be leaders. Such attitudes are the root causes of indiscipline and chaos as male principals are unwilling to embrace new strategies of curbing DSA. (Ouru, 2008). Buto (2002) observed that female principals believe in dialoguing whenever a problem arose in the school. Perhaps this is due to their social role as mothers in the society. However, King’endo (2007) found no inter-relationship between the head teachers’ gender and levels of DSA among their students. This researcher went out to establish whether the head teachers age and gender influence their choice of strategy for curbing DSA. 2.7.2 Influence of Head Teachers Academic Qualifications and Experience on Choice of Strategies used to Curb DSA According to Ouru (2008), all aspects of school administration require careful and consistent development so that programmes may respond to the unique needs of its clients. He further argues that Principals’ administrative and teaching 40 experiences play a pivotal role in determining their attitude and approaches as well as their problem solving techniques in the school. A study by Sisungo, Buhere and Sang, (2011) found that headship of secondary school require knowledge and experience in managerial skills. Okumbe (1999) noted the importance of qualification and experience in enhancing head teachers’ expert power, credibility, confidence and decisiveness in management practice. Ouru (2008); and Oside (2003) consent that head teachers with many years of experience in handling students had a better understanding of their students and their roles as principals better. Mutisya (2000); and Eshiwani (1993) support this scholarly view and add that schools which have long serving and experienced administrators have less discipline problems. Cheloti (2009) concurs and wrote that education opens the mind of an individual to strategic thinking, better problem solving approaches and better planning with a view of reducing cases of indiscipline among students. Mwende (1995) however links long teaching experience to settled families and minds hence ability to concentrate on school maters. This study will establish whether teacher experience and qualifications influences the choice of strategies used by head teacher to curb DSA. 2.8 Influence of School Category on Head Teachers’ Choice of Strategies used to curb DSA The school plays an important role in primary prevention of DSA through 41 education provided on various subjects. According to Kabiru, (2009) school environment and the classroom climate are major variables influencing the effectiveness of education for drug abuse prevention strategies. Some of the characteristics of schools that relate to successful change include quality leadership, teacher morale, teacher mastery of the school environment and resources (UNODC, 2004). School factors such as the school category and type; whether it is boys only, girls or mixed; or boarding, day school, National, Provincial or District school have an impact on the head teachers’ attitude and students’ behaviour. Gitau (2007) indicated that drug abuse among the youth knows no gender; but emphasised that boys were at a higher risk due to peer pressure and that boys have an intrinsic tendency to experiment on nearly anything. Head teachers in such schools should aim at using school curriculum to create awareness and counselling to control behaviour. King’endo (2007) and NACADA (2006) found that drug abuse prevalence was higher in boys’ schools followed by mixed schools and less drug problems were reported in girls’ schools. This study sought to confirm these findings and asses the extent to which school category influences the choice of strategies used by the head teachers to curb Drug and Substance Abuse in schools. 2.9 Summary of Literature Review 42 While recent research studies on DSA in Kenya have paid key attention to Mombasa City and Malindi, little has been done in Nairobi. Yet Nairobi is the country’s’ capital city, hosting most of the youth in schools and colleges. It is also a transit point for most drugs to other parts of the world. A survey conducted by the Government revealed that a high number of day secondary school students are in contact with traffickers on a daily basis (Republic of Kenya, 2009). The survey also indicated that most students in Nairobi come from low cost slum areas making them highly vulnerable to the allure of drug traffickers who entice them with promises of some cash rewards. King’endo (2007) and NACADA (2006) found that drug abuse prevalence was higher in boys’ schools followed by mixed schools and less DSA were reported in girls’ schools. Furthermore, King’endo (2007) showed no inter-relationship between the head teachers’ gender and levels of drug abuse among their students, hence the need for this study to establish whether such a relationship exists. Mutsotso (2004) and Imbunya (2009) found that syllabus content on DSA was contained in non examinable and elective subjects like life skills, social ethics and Christian Religious Education and that head teachers preferred to concentrate on examinable subjects due to competition with other schools and clamour for high grades in national examinations, hence the need for this study to find out whether life skills, which is also a non examinable subject is taught in secondary schools. Makokha (1984) found that head teachers lacked sufficient knowledge on 43 prevention and management of Drug and Substance Abuse among students. However the study was conducted in two boys’ schools in Nairobi hence need for this study to fill the gap. NACADA (2007) and Muma (2006) noted that there is a shortage of drug abuse counsellors, treatment and rehabilitation services; and lack of knowledge among the people on such services hence the need for this study to establish the effectiveness of strategies used by head teachers to curb DSA. Republic of Kenya (2008) revealed an upward trend in consumption of both licit and illicit drugs by students. This study is conceived out of the need to fill the existing gaps hence establish the effectiveness of strategies used by head teachers to curb Drug and Substance Abuse in secondary schools in Nairobi County. 2.10 Theoretical Framework The study is based on the social resistance skills theory as proposed by Gilbert Botvin in (1970) and the drug and alcohol theories of aggression by Geen (1990) and Berkowitz (1993). The social resistance skills theory argues that social and psychological factors are central in promoting the onset of cigarette smoking and later, drug and alcohol abuse. The social resistance theory holds that drug abuse result from pro-drug social influences from peers, persuasive advertising appeals, and media portrayals encouraging drug use, along with exposure to drug-using role models. The causes of drug abuse cited in this study, centre on some of the above psychosocial factors. Based on this theory, head teachers need to adopt 44 strategies that help students recognize and deal with social influences to use drugs from peers and the media in order to control the DSA problem. School administrators’ strategies should be aimed at educating the learners on dangers of drug abuse through syllabus and co-curricular activities, to prevent indulgence. This relates with social resistance approaches that train students on ways to avoid high-risk situations where they are likely to experience peer pressure to smoke, drink, or use drugs, and acquire the knowledge, confidence, and skills needed to handle peer pressure (Botvin, 2000). Resistance skills programs as a whole have generally been successful in the UK. A comprehensive review of resistance skills studies published from 1980 to 1990 reported that the majority of prevention studies (63 percent) had positive effects on drug use behaviour, with fewer studies having neutral (26 percent) or negative effects on behaviour (11 percent) (Botvin, 2000). The most popular school-based drug education program based on the social influence theory is Drug Abuse Resistance Education, or Project DARE. The core DARE curriculum is typically provided to children in the fifth or sixth grades and contains elements of information dissemination and social influence approaches to drug abuse prevention. The DARE curriculum uses trained, uniformed police officers in the classroom to teach the drug prevention strategies. In line with this theory, the 45 Kenya Ministry of Education has established drug control units enlisting the participation of NACADA and the anti narcotic police unit to help curb DSA among students (Republic of Kenya, 2008). The limitation of the social resistance skills approach is that it assumes that young people do not want to use drugs but lack the skills or confidence to refuse. For some youth, however, using drugs may not be a matter of yielding to peer- pressure but may have instrumental value; it may, for example, help them deal with anxiety, low self-esteem, or a lack of comfort in social situations. For some, use of drugs especially alcohol makes them feel grown- ups. The theory also assumes that if youth are not exposed to drugs, drug using role models and pro- drug social influences, then they are unlikely to become drug abusers. But studies have shown that exposure to drugs may occur in the prenatal stages of a child pre- disposing them to a high propensity to Drug and Substance Abuse in their youth and adult hood. The study is also anchored on the alcohol theories proposed by Geen (1990) and Berkowitz (1993) which argue that alcohol consumption produces aggressive behaviour in the abusers and that despite this knowledge; youth and adults are bound to the behaviour. Geen’s (1990) major premise is that the elicitation of aggression is dependent on the interaction of “background variables” such as genetics, physiology, temperament, personality, social-cultural expectations and 46 exposure to violence. This theory proposes the need for intervention programs aimed at modifying key risk factors so that alcohol consumption will be less likely to engender aggression. Berkowitz’s (1993) theory postulates that the desire to behave in an aggressive manner is the result of psychological damage that alcohol produces in the abuser. The alcohol theories may be used to explain behaviour of students witnessed in secondary schools in Kenya where DSA has been listed as one of the major causes of violence and strikes as recorded in studies by (Kinyanjui, 1976; Mungai, 2007; Kin’gendo, 2007; and Cheloti, 2009). The limitations of the theory are that it is more biased towards one single outcome of alcohol abuse; “aggression” and does not explore other effects that arise from DSA. As a result, it emphasises the need to help students identify risky situations that might facilitate expression of intoxicated aggression and not strategies to curb DSA. Furthermore, there is the problem of directionality. That is, does alcohol cause aggression or do aggressive individuals tend to drink more? The theory has been used by Giangola (2000) to explain alcohol related aggression in college students. Despite these limitations; the study portrays a compelling relation between alcohol and aggression and is appropriate for this study. This theory has been used to supplement the social resistance skills theory and lays emphasis on the fact that, despite the common knowledge of the negative 47 effects of DSA among students and other users, the prevalence rates are still high. This calls for more concerted efforts and well coordinated strategies on the part of school heads. These theories therefore guided the study by way of examining the Drug and Substance Abuse in secondary schools in Nairobi County and analyzing the strategies used to curb the problem. 2.11 Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework is a concise description of the phenomenon under study accompanied by a graphic depiction of the major variables of the study (Mugenda, 2008). It is the perspective or the set of lenses through which the researcher views the problem. It conceptualizes the inter-relationship between the two study variables; in this case, administrative strategies used to curb DSA (independent variable) and levels of drug abuse in schools (dependent variable) as shown in Figure 2.1. 48 Figure 2.1 The Inter-relationship between Administrative strategies of the Head Teacher and DSA among Students Head teacher characteristics o Age o Gender o Qualifications o Experience. School category (National, Provincial, District) School curriculum o Life skills o Co- curriculum Drug and Substance Abuse Mitigation process Curbing DSA • Levels of DSA Guidance and counselling School community involvement (BOG, PTA, parents) School rules Head teachers’ strategies used to curb DSA. 49 The conceptual framework shows the Head teachers’ administrative strategies in curbing DSA among students. In this study, the level of DSA is conceptualised as an outcome of head teachers’ administrative strategies. The head teacher characteristics and the school category influence the strategies used to curb DSA. The school curriculum, guidance and counselling sessions are used to create awareness and shape students’ behaviour. School rules play to deter abuse of drugs and substances. The school community is involved in initiating intervention programmes, enacting and enforcing drug trafficking laws, teaching moral values to students and, reporting cases of traffickers and abusers within the context of the DSA mitigation process so that the levels of Drug and Substance Abuse in schools is reduced. 50 CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1. Introduction This chapter discusses the methodology used in collecting and synthesizing the study data. The elements discussed are; research design, target population, sample size and sampling technique, research instruments, instrument validity, reliability of research instruments, data collection procedures and data analysis. 3.2 Research Design Kombo and Tromp (2006) define a research design as the structure of the research or the “glue” that hold all the elements in a research project together. The study adopted a descriptive survey design the naturalistic survey design. Mugenda (2008) explains that descriptive design studies are used when examining social issues that exist in communities. This design was deemed appropriate for this study since Drug and Substance Abuse is a social problem which has permeated the society and all students are at a potential risk. Descriptive survey design was selected because it allows the researcher to describe characteristics of particular individual, or a group (Kothari, 2004). In this case, this study has described the strategies used by head teachers to curb DSA such as the school curriculum, guidance and counseling, school community 51 involvement and school rules and their effectiveness in curbing Drug and Substance Abuse in secondary schools in Nairobi County. It is also used when the researcher intends to collect both quantitative and qualitative data as was the case for this study. Naturalistic survey implies the process of gaining insight into the general picture of a situation, by observing study variables in their natural set up (Borg and Gall, 1996). In this study, head teachers strategies used to curb DSA were observed, studied and explained through interviews in their natural environment, which is the school. 3.3 Target Population According to the list obtained from the Provincial Director of Education’s office, (2010) Nairobi County has 68 public secondary schools; 19 Boys, 20 Girls’, and 29 mixed schools. The student population is 30745. All the 68 Principals, 68 heads of guidance and counselling and, all the students formed the target population of this study. 3.4 Sample Size and Sampling Technique Best and Kahn (2000) define a sample as a small proportion selected for observation and analysis. Fifty percent of the schools, the head teachers, heads of guidance and counselling department and 50% of the students were used as recommended by (Mugenda, 2008). Stratified sampling was used to classify schools into; girls only, boys only, and mixed schools, mainly because single- 52 gender schools are likely to have different experiences on the problem of drug abuse hence adopt different strategies to curb the problem compared to mixed schools as observed by (Imbosa, 2002). Disciplinary systems are also likely to be different and to have an impact on the pattern of drug abuse in both categories. This is more so because most single-gender schools are boarding while the mixed schools are mainly day schools (Kaguthi, 2004). Furthermore, Boys are genetically different from girls and this may influence the way they respond to strategies for curbing drug abuse (Mokiru, 2003). The summary of the target population and sample size per school category is shown in Table 3.1. Table 3.1 Target Population and Sample Size per School Category: The Table shows the study population and the sample of schools, head teachers, HOD’s Guidance and Counselling and students as per their class. School type Target pop Sample size Head teacher HOD G & C Form 1 Form 2 Form 3 Form 4 Boys 19 10 10 10 30 30 30 30 Girls 20 10 10 10 30 30 30 30 Mixed 29 15 15 15 45 45 45 45 Total 68 35 35 35 105 105 105 105 53 Selection of Schools: Simple random sampling was used to select 50% of each category; giving a total of 10 boys’ schools, 10 girls’ schools, and 15 mixed schools. A national school was purposively included in the category of boys’ and girls’ schools since there is no mixed national school in Nairobi County. Selection of Head Teachers: After selecting 50% of schools in the county, all the head teachers of the selected schools were included in the study using purposive sampling; hence a total of 35 principals. Selection of H.O.D Guidance and Counselling: All the heads of guidance and counselling departments in the 35 selected schools were included in the study by purposive sampling because they are responsible for guiding students and counselling those with DSA problems in schools. Selection of Students: To calculate the sample of students, the formula provided by Sounders, Lewis, and Thornhill (2007); and Mugenda (2008) was used. The formula was preferred because it gives a fair representation of students per class and gender. n= p% x q% x [z/e %] 2, where; n is the minimum sample size required if the target population is greater than 10000. p % is the proportion in the target population estimated to have the characteristic (assume 50% if unknown). q % is the proportion estimated not to have the characteristic (1-p) z is the standard normal deviation at the required confidence level 54 e % is the level of statistical significance. Substituted as; 50 x 50 x [1.96/5]2 = 2500 x [0.392]2 =2500 x 0.154 = 385 students. The total number of students was divided among the 35 schools to give 11 students per school, who were further selected proportionately from Form 1, 2, 3, and 4. Therefore three students per class participated in the study in the selected schools. They were selected through simple random sampling by asking students in each class to pick papers. Only 3 of the papers had a ‘YES’ which allowed the bearer to participate in the study; while the rest had a ‘NO’. In cases where the school had more than one stream, each of the three students was selected from different streams. For mixed schools, gender balancing was observed by first stratifying the class then selecting 50% of each gender by simple random sampling. The total number of students used in this study was 420. 3.5 Research Instruments This study used questionnaires and structured interviews to collect data. Questionnaires: Kombo and Tromp (2006) contend that questionnaires can be used to gather data over a large sample and are the most effective for collecting data in descriptive survey design hence were deemed most appropriate for this study. Orodho (2005) further explains that questionnaires capture information on people’s attitudes, opinions, habits and other varieties of education or social issues. Therefore were found fitting for this study as it seeks to explore strategies for curbing drug abuse habits in schools. Further more, the attitude of students 55 towards different strategies is important when analysing the effectiveness of the strategies, making questionnaires most appropriate. Questionnaires were prepared for school principals and students. Principal’s Questionnaire had three sections; section “A”, sourced general information from the principal, section “B” gathered information on strategies for curbing DSA in secondary schools, factors influencing the strategy used by head teachers and the effectiveness of the strategies used by head teachers to curb DSA in schools. Section “C” sourced information on the extent and effects of DSA on school administration. Students’ Questionnaire had three sections; section “A” sourced general information from the students, section “B” gathered information on strategies for curbing DSA in secondary schools and factors influencing the strategy used by head teachers to curb DSA in schools and section “C” sourced information on the extent and effects of DSA on school administration. The Interview Guide: According to Kombo and Tromp (2006) interviews provide in-depth information about cases of interest to the researcher. They allow the researcher to gain a detailed understanding of the topic under study and are useful for studying sensitive topics. This instrument was found suitable for the study due to its sensitive nature. The interview guide for heads of guidance and counselling departments contained questions on all the research objectives and were administered to the heads of guidance and counselling departments. This 56 instrument helped the researcher to gather more information through probing and following information trails. 3.6 Validity of the Research Instruments This is the quality of the data gathering instrument or procedure that enables it to measure what it is supposed to measure (Best and Kahn, 2000; Sounders, 2007). The test items in the instruments were tested for content validity. Content validity is the extent to which questions in the instruments provide adequate coverage of the investigative questions (Sounders, 2007). The test items were also presented to three research experts in educational administration and the supervisors to further assess whether they were ‘essential’, ‘useful but not essential’, or ‘not necessary’(Kothari, 2004). Their feedback and recommendations were incorporated in the final instruments. The test items were also piloted to ascertain the validity of the instrument. Through the pilot study, ambiguities in the questions asked were done away with and new questions deemed relevant were introduced for example; question 8, 13, 14 and 24 were introduced in the principals’ questionnaire, before the actual study was carried out. Irrelevant items on the questionnaires and interview were discarded and others re-worded to elicit the required response. For example; question 6 in principals’ questionnaire and question 5 in students’ questionnaire were re-worded. Test items in the questionnaires were re-arranged to flow in line with the objectives of the study. 57 3.7 Reliability of the Research Instrument Reliability measures the stability of a research instrument across two or more attempts. Mugenda (2008) define reliability as a measure of the degree to which research instruments yield consistent results or data after repeated trials. To test for reliability of the instruments, a test-re-test technique was used. A sample of six schools, two from each category, was used for reliability testing. The developed instruments were administered to them. The responses were scored. The same instruments were administered to the principals, teacher counselors and students after a period of two weeks keeping all initial conditions constant (Kothari, 2004). The responses were scored. The scores from both testing periods were then correlated to get the co-efficient of stability using the Pearson’s Product Moment formula as follows: Source: Elifson, Runyon and Haber (1990). This shows the relationship between the independent variable (x) and the dependent variable (y). In this case, administrative strategies such as school 58 curriculum, guidance and counseling, school community involvement are the independent variables while the level of DSA is the dependent variable. The numerator of the equation is the co variation of (x) and (y) and determines the sign of the correlation coefficient. A negative value of a correlation means that the relationship is inverse hence an increase in one variable leads to a decrease in the other variable and vice versa. The denominator shows the square root of the product of the standard deviation of (x) and (y) and shows how closely or otherwise the two variables are related (Haber, Runyon and Elifson, 1990). Values of + or - 0.8 or more indicates high degree of correlation and can be used to judge the instrument as reliable or consistent (Mugenda, 2008). The reliability test on the principals’ questionnaire yielded score of 0.91 and the students’ questionnaire yielded a score of 0.84. The reliability score for the two questionnaires was 0.875 indicating that research instruments were reliable hence were used to collect data for this study. 3.8 Data Collection Procedures A permit to conduct research was sought and obtained from the National Council for Science and Technology. The researcher made appointments with principals of sampled schools on when to administer questionnaires to the principals and students and also when to conduct interviews with heads of departments for Guidance and Counselling. The class teachers accompanied the researcher to administer the students’ questionnaire since most of the students are minors. Since 59 the subject of drug abuse is sensitive, the principals, HOD Guidance and counselling and students were reassured of confidentiality of their identity. 3.9 Data Analysis Techniques Data collected was edited for accuracy, uniformity, and consistency and then arranged to enable coding and analysis. Data was analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics assisted by the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). Quantitative data was analysed using descriptive statistics and presented in tables, while some were changed into frequency tables, graphs, and pie charts. Responses from open ended questions and interviews were transcribed and organised into themes and reported in narratives. In analysing responses from principals’ and HOD Guidance and Counselling on; the role of school community in curbing DSA and challenges encountered by head teachers in curbing DSA, hypothetical names were used to conceal the real identity of some respondents. For females, Mary was used and Nelson and Jonah were used for Males. Inferential statistics used to analyse data included chi square test and Pearson correlation. Coefficient of Correlations was used on hypotheses Ho1 to determine the relationship between head teacher characteristics and strategies used to curb DSA and Ho2 to determine the relationship between school category and strategies used to curb DSA. Coefficient of correlations ranges between 1 and-1. Correlation coefficient value of less than 0.5 would mean a less significant 60 relationship between the 2 variables while values ≥0.5 would mean very significant relationship between the 2 variables. A negative correlation coefficient means that the relationship is inverse; for example if the number of DSA counselling sessions increase, then the levels of DSA should decline and the value of correlation will be high but negative. The chi square test (χ²) of independence was used to test the hypotheses developed from objective (v) and (vi). According to Elifson (1990) the chi-square (χ²) test of independence is used to evaluate group differences when the test variable is nominal, dichotomous, ordinal, or grouped interval. This test is suitable for this study as most of the data is dichotomous, nominal and ordinal. Two variables are independent if, for all cases, the classification of a case into a particular category of one variable (the group variable) has no effect on the probability that the case will fall into any particular category of the second variable (the test variable). When two variables are independent, there is no relationship between them. The acceptable level of significance for the (χ²) test of was 0.05 at 1 degree of freedom. Levels of significance found to be greater than 0.05 implied that the null hypothesis is rejected, on the contrary, if the level of significance was less than 0.05 then the null hypotheses were accepted. 61 A five point Likert scale ranging from ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’ was used to gauge the effectiveness of school curriculum and the effectiveness of school community involvement in curbing DSA. A weighted mean score was used to interpret the results. A mean score of 5-3.5 was taken to mean that the students agreed with the statement. A mean score of 3.4 to 2.6 was taken to mean mixed reactions from the students. A mean score of 2.5 to 1 was taken to mean the students did not agree with the statement. 62 CHAPTER FOUR DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION 4.1 Introduction This chapter consists of analysis, presentation and interpretation of data collected. The study investigated the administrative strategies adopted by head teachers in curbing drug and substances abuse in public secondary schools in Nairobi County of Kenya. Data was collected from Head teachers, heads of Guidance and Counselling Departments and students of sampled schools. Findings from head teachers were presented first followed by those from the students. Findings from heads of guidance and counselling departments on every research question were presented last. Data on the demographic information of the study respondents was presented first, followed by a descriptive analysis and discussion of data on the general perspective of the drug abuse in secondary schools; covering information on causes, types and effects of DSA on school administration. It was followed by descriptive analysis of data obtained from study objectives 1, 2 and 3 on administrative strategies used by head teachers to curb DSA. Hypotheses Ho1, Ho2 and Ho3 relating to objective 1, 2 and 3 were tested using chi square (χ²) test of independence and the results presented and analysed after every objective. This was followed by analysis of Ho4 and Ho5 in respect of objective 4 and 5 on factors influencing strategies used by head teachers. 63 4.2 Instrument Return Rate The study sought information on head teachers’ strategies in curbing DSA in schools. Questionnaires were administered to school principals, and students of sampled schools. Heads of departments for guidance and counselling were interviewed. A total of 490 instruments were administered in 35 secondary schools out of which 466 were satisfactorily responded to. This represented 95% total instrument return rate. Thirty five questionnaires were distributed to the head teachers and thirty one (31/35) were satisfactorily and consistently filled. This represented 88% response rate. The research also conducted twenty eight out of targeted thirty five (28/35) interviews with the heads of guidance and counselling departments. This represents 80% response rate. Four hundred and twenty questionnaires were distributed to students in thirty five schools. Four hundred and seven (407/420) questionnaires were found to have been satisfactorily and consistently filled and were used for the study. This represents 96% student questionnaire response rate since some head teachers and teacher counsellors were unavailable and 4% of the students’ questionnaires were not satisfactorily completed. According to Hartman and Hedborne (1979), 50% response rate is adequate, 60% is good and 70% or more is very good. The response rates were deemed satisfactorily as they were more than 70% as recommended by (Hartman and Hedborne, 1979); and the findings presented are based on the feedback obtained from those sources 64 4.3 Head teachers’ Demographic Information The study sought background information from head teachers on their age, gender, qualification and their duration of service in their present schools. The researcher believes that these parameters have an influence on head teachers’ decision making process including the choice of administrative strategies they use to curb drug abuse in the schools. 4.3.1 Distribution of Head Teachers by Gender Garba and Garba (2010) explains that gender influences people’s attitudes, social roles and responses to situations and adds that females are understanding; kind, soft but firm in nature. Their male counterparts are more often aggressive, decisive and quick in decision making. The study sought the distribution of head teachers by gender and further explore if their gender influenced the choice of strategies they used to curb DSA. The results showed that 58% of the head teachers were male while (42%) were female. This was the case because head teachers of all boys’ schools were male while a majority of the head teachers in mixed schools were male. However the difference was considered small hence ignored leading to an assumption that the head teachers were fairly distributed across both genders and thus the responses were not biased towards one gender. 65 4.3.2 Distribution of Head Teachers by Age An individual’s age determines the precision and vigour with which a person performs tasks hence influences the head teachers’ dealing with students’ discipline problems such as Drug and Substance Abuse (Ouru, 2008). Head teachers aged between 35 and 47 were energetic and effective administrators than their younger and much older counterparts (Ouru, 2008). The study sought to know the age of the head teachers and the influence on their choice of strategies in curbing DSA. Table 4.2 shows the distribution of head teachers’ by age. Table 4.2 Distribution of Head Teachers by Age Age Frequency Percentage 25-34 years 4 12.9 35-44 years 8 25.8 45-54 years 13 41.9 Over 54 years 6 19.4 Total 31 100 As illustrated in Table 4.2, a bigger proportion of the head teachers (41.9%) were aged between 45 to 54 years; 25.8% were aged between 35 and 44 years; 19.4% 66 were over 55 years while 12.9% were aged between 25 and 34 years. The responses show that the head teachers in the study were distributed across all age groups and therefore could provide desired responses to the study questions especially on the influence of head teachers’ age on the choice of strategy and thus the findings do not have any age bias. 4.3.3 Distribution of Head Teachers by Duration of Service in the School The head teachers’ years of service enhance the experience and understanding of student’s behaviour. Problems like substance abuse lead to behaviour changes in learners and can easily be detected by experienced head teachers who understand their school environment. The head teachers were therefore asked to indicate how long they had served as head teachers in their respective schools. Table 4.3 shows the results. Table 4.3 Head Teachers Duration of Service in the Schools Duration (Years) Frequency Percentage Less than 5 3 9.7 5-10 21 67.7 11-20 7 22.6 Total 31 100 67 From the analysis, 9.7% of head teachers had been in their schools for a period less than 5 years. A further 67.7% had been in the schools for a period between 5 and 10 years while the remaining 22.6% for a period of 11-20 years. This indicates that majority of the head teachers (90.3%) had been in the schools for a much longer period than 5 years. This period was considered long enough for an administrator to develop a strategy implement it and possibly evaluate its effectiveness. Hence the head teachers in the sampled schools were found to be fit to respond to questions on administrative strategies for curbing drug and substances abuse in the selected schools. 4.3.4 Distribution of Head Teachers by Academic Qualifications Sisungo (2011) stated that education enhances the proficiency, operational and conceptualization skills of an individual. For these reasons, the highest academic qualification of head teachers interviewed was sought in order to find out how they had influenced the choice of strategies in curbing DSA. This is shown in the Figure 4.2. 68 Figure 4.2 Head Teachers’ Highest Academic Qualification The results show that majority of the principals (55%) had MED; 29% had BED; 6% had MSC; 6% had BSC while the rest 3% had BA as their highest level of academic qualification. These findings show that head teachers of schools in Nairobi were highly qualified at least up to first degree ( BED) and beyond and should be very competent to handle student behavioural and discipline problems like DSA by virtue of their academic qualifications. 69 4.4 Demographic information of Heads of Guidance and Counselling Departments The role of guidance and counselling is to equip students with knowledge and skills that help them make useful decisions. The head of guidance and counselling departments in the selected schools were interviewed. The interviews were conducted at a place of their own choice and convenience within the school compound. 4.4.1 Duration of Service of HOD Guidance and Counselling Departments The heads of guidance and counselling departments were asked to indicate how long they had served in that capacity in their respective schools; as this would influence their responses on study questions. Table 4.4 shows the results. Table 4.4 Duration of Service of HOD Guidance and counselling Duration (Years) Frequency Percentage Less than 5 5 17.9 5-10 16 57.1 11-20 7 25 Total 28 100 70 From the analysis, 17.9% of G& C teachers had been in their schools for a period less than 5 years. A further 57.1% had been in the schools for a period between 5 and 10 years while the remaining 25% for a period of 11-20 years. This indicates that majority of teachers (82.1%) had been in the schools for a much longer period than 5 years. This shows that they understood the school environment, the characteristics of their respective catchment areas and the general behaviour of students in the schools hence could effectively respond to the research questions on administrative strategies used to curb Drug and Substance Abuse in the selected schools. The heads of guidance and counselling departments indicated that they were involved in dealing with Drug and Substance Abuse cases in the schools and were very informed on administrative strategies adopted to curb drugs and substance abuse in secondary schools. 4.5 Students’ Demographic Information The research sought the demographic information of the students, and their schools. The information was to enable the researcher to understand the distribution of sampled students as far as their age, gender and the categories of schools they were drawn from. 4.5.1 Students’ Distribution by Gender Students’ gender has an influence on their development and behaviour regarding the abuse of drugs. Erambo, Mutsotso and Kabuka (2011) argue 71 that both male and female students are equally vulnerable to substance abuse and that understanding gender and substance abuse could make it possible to develop prevention programmes. The students were asked to indicate their gender. The findings showed that 54% of the students sampled for the study were boys while 46% were girls. These findings show that the students were fairly distributed across both genders and thus the responses are not biased on one gender. 4.5.2 Distribution of Students by Age According to Erambo, Mutsotso and Kabuka (2011), ages between 13-14 years was the key age group when students first experiment with substances and begin to form a habit with substance abuse by ages between 15-16 years. These according to the researchers’ observation are the ages when most students are in secondary school hence the study also inquired the age groups of the students. Table 4.5 shows the students’ distribution within the age brackets. 72 Table 4.5 Distribution of Students by Age Age (Years) Frequency Percentage 13-14 years 83 20.4 15-16 years 156 38.3 17-18 years 130 31.9 Over 19years 38 9.4 Total 407 100.0 As illustrated in the Table 4.5, 38.3% of the students were aged between 15 to 16 years; 31.9% were aged between 17 and 18 years; 20.4% were aged between 13- 14 years while 9.4% were over 18 years. The school entry age into standard one according to the Ministry of Education is 6 years and in the absence of any interruptions, such pupils join form one at the age of 14 years and complete form four at the age of 18 years (Republic of Kenya, 2005 and 2006). However the early starters, late starters and those who repeat classes for various reasons may complete a little earlier or later than age 18 years respectively. The responses show that the students in the study were distributed across all possible age groups likely to be found in secondary schools and thus the findings do not have any age bias. 73 4.6 School Characteristics Eshiwani (1993) stated that the school category has an impact on students’ discipline and performance and that some National and provincial schools performed well academically due to high discipline. Buckley (2007) indicated that girls are fairly conservative while boys are more aggressive and exploratory. Students in day schools are more open to external influence than their counterparts in boarding schools (Kaguthi, 2004). Imbosa (2002) found that head teachers in boys’ schools used more aggressive strategies like punishment and suspension to curb DSA. This study sought information on the schools from which the students were drawn from and whether it had an effect on the choice of strategies used by their head teachers. The head teachers were thus asked to indicate the category and type of their schools respectively. The results are as shown in Figure 4.3. 74 Figure 4.3 School Category In terms of school category, more head teachers (40%) were drawn from mixed day schools; 19% were drawn from boys boarding schools, 15% were drawn from girls’ boarding schools; 13% were drawn from girls’ day schools while 10% were drawn from boys’ day schools. The remaining 3% percent of head teachers were drawn from mixed boarding school. This was in proportion to the categories of schools since Nairobi County has only one mixed boarding school. Head teachers were further asked to indicate the type of their schools. The results are as shown in Figure 4.4. 75 Figure 4.4 School Type The results show that more head teachers (51.6%) who participated in the study were drawn from provincial schools; 41.9% were drawn from district schools while the rest 6.5% were drawn from national schools in Nairobi As shown in the preceding section, the head teachers, teacher counsellors and students possessed characteristics which were deemed appropriate for the study given their interaction with students on the subject of DSA. The study findings therefore do not possess any age and gender biases as the respondents; (head teachers, HOD Guidance and counselling, and the students) were fairly distributed across possible ages and gender. The results also show that there was input from all categories and types of the schools in Nairobi County and can be generalized in the public secondary schools in Nairobi County. 76 4.7 Extent and Effects of Drug and Substance Abuse in Schools The rampant abuse of drugs and substances by students is a major threat to the functionality of the education sector and the very existence of the society (Kin’gendo, 2007). DSA has negative effects on student performance (Kimori, 2010) and discipline (Kinyanjui, 1976). The study sought to identify strategies used by head teachers in curbing DSA and their effectiveness. However, the researcher further sought information on the general perspective of Drug and Substance Abuse in secondary schools in Nairobi County in order to put the drug abuse problem in perspective. Information on the extent of DSA, types of drugs abused, causes of drug abuse and effects of DSA among secondary school students was collected analysed and presented. The results are presented and discussed in the following sections. 4.7.1 Seriousness of DSA Problem in Schools Information on levels of DSA in schools was sought in order to establish effectiveness of strategies used to curb the problem. Questions to this effect were posed to head teachers and students. The head teachers were asked to rate the seriousness of the Drug and Substance Abuse problem in the schools. Figure 4.5 shows the results obtained. 77 Figure 4.5 Head Teachers’ View on Seriousness of DSA in Schools Serious Not Serious Prefer Not To Say Non Existent 7(23%) 22(71%) 0 2(6%) Seriousness of DSA problem in schools The results show that majority (71%) of the head teachers indicated that the DSA is not serious while 23% indicated that it is serious. Six percent of the head teachers who participated in the study indicated that DSA was non existent in their schools. The students were also asked to rate the seriousness of DSA in the schools. Figure 4.6 shows the results obtained. 78 Figure 4.6 Students’ View on Seriousness of DSA in Schools The results show that a higher percentage of the students (45.2%) indicated that the DSA is not serious while 30.4% indicated that it is serious. Sixteen percent of the students who participated in the study preferred not rate the seriousness of the DSA while 7.9% gave no response. The researcher noted the variation in the percentage of responses between head teachers and students and wondered whether some head teachers preferred to deny existence of drugs in the schools to protect the school image. The findings disagree with Kimori (2010) where head teachers and student indicated that student were abusing drugs with 83% and 72% respectively responding to the affirmative. 79 The students were also asked whether they had ever taken drugs and from the sampled schools, majority of them (326) representing 80.1% indicated that they have never taken drugs while 81 representing 19.9% of the students indicated that they had taken drugs. The students who indicated that they had taken drugs were asked to state their reasons for engaging in drug abuse. The responses are shown in Table 4.6. Table 4.6 Students Responses on Reasons why they Take Drugs and Substances Drug Frequency Percentage Experimenting and Curiosity 76 93.8 Influence from friends 25 30.8 Fun 12 14.8 Table 4.6 shows that majority of the students (93.8%) indicated that they started taking drugs and substances so as to experiment and out of curiosity; 30.8% indicated that they took drugs due to influence from their friends, while 14.8% indicated that they started taking drugs for fun. This shows that lack of information on dangers of drugs is leading cause of DSA among students and head teachers should endeavour to empower students with this information. 80 4.7.2 Commonly Abused Drugs and Substances Kaguthi (2004) and Kin’gendo (2007) explained that drugs and substances are abused because they are cheap and readily available. They indentified alcohol, cigarettes, Miraa and bhang as the most abused drugs due to their availability. Head teachers were asked to name the drugs commonly abused by students in the schools. The results are shown in Table 4.7. Table 4.7 Head Teachers’ Responses on Commonly Abused in the Schools Drug Frequency Percentage Bhang 21 67.7 Alcohol 18 58.1 Miraa 19 61.2 Capsules 6 19.4 Cigarettes 24 77.4 Tobacco 8 25.9 The head teachers indicated that the most commonly abused drugs and substances were cigarettes as indicated by 77.4% of the head teachers followed by bhang as indicated by 67.7% of the head teachers, then miraa as indicated by 61.2% of the head teachers and alcohol as indicated by 58.1% of the head teachers. Other drugs 81 and substances abused include: tobacco as indicated by 25.9% of the head teachers and capsules as indicated by 19.4% of the head teachers Similarly, the students were asked to name the drugs that were commonly abused by students in the schools. Table 4.8 show the results. Table 4.8 Students’ Responses on Commonly Abused in the Schools Drug Frequency Percentage Bhang 356 87.5 Alcohol 313 76.9 Miraa 318 78.1 Cigarette 247 60.7 Tobacco 25 6.1 Ethanol 21 5.2 Cocaine (Unga) 18 4.4 Heroine 11 2.7 82 The students indicated that the most commonly abused drug was bhang as indicated by 87.5% of the students; followed by miraa as indicated by 78.1% of the students, then alcohol as indicated by 76.9% of the students and cigarettes as indicated by 60.7% of the students. Other drugs and substances abused include: tobacco as indicated by 6.1% of the students; ethanol as indicated by 5.2% of the students; cocaine as indicated by 4.4% of the students and heroine as indicated by 2.7% of the students. Cocaine and heroine are very expensive dugs and this could explain the reason why a small percentage, (4.4% and 2.7%) were abusing them. Findings from the head teachers and students show that the most abused drugs were cigarettes, bhang, alcohol and Miraa. On the variation in the responses, the researcher observed that some students may have been camouflaging bhang in cigarettes or some head teachers could not distinguish bhang from cigarettes. These findings agree with the findings of a baseline survey conducted by Kaguthi (2004) and Kin’gendo (2007) that further explained that commonly abused drugs were bhang, cigarettes and alcohol and to explain that these substances were cheap and readily available. 4.7.3 Factors Contributing to Drug and Substance Abuse in Schools World Health Organization (1993) showed that factors such as prolonged or traumatic parental absence, harsh discipline, failure to communicate, and parental use of drugs may lead to or enhance drug abuse among young people. However students in their adolescent stage may take drugs due to peer pressure or for fun. 83 Head teachers were asked to list the main causes of drug abuse among students in Nairobi County. The findings are presented in Table 4.9 Table 4.9 Head Teachers Responses on Factors Contributing To Drug and Substance Abuse Cause Frequency Percentage Peer pressure 26 83.9 Poor parenting 17 54.8 Large amounts of pocket monies 8 25.9 Ease of access to drugs and substances /Availability 27 87.1 Lack of awareness 9 29.0 They know they will get away with it 13 41.9 The results show that ease of access and availability of drugs and substance is the main cause of DSA as indicated by majority of the head teachers (87.1%). This is of great concern as the country continues to record increase in the rate at which 84 drugs and substances are peddled in the country and as such infiltrating school going youth. Peer pressure was cited by 83.9% of the head teachers as leading to DSA among students; 54.8% of the head teachers cited poor parenting as another major cause of DSA; 41.9% of the head teachers indicated that students know that they will get away with DSA since the head teachers have been barred from expelling students and corporal punishment is prohibited by the children’s Act (2001). Other causes were said to include lack of awareness as indicated by 29% of the head teachers and large amounts of pocket monies as indicated by 26% of the head teachers. These findings agree with Maithya (2009) that peer pressure is one of the leading factors that contribute to DSA in schools. Similarly, the students were asked the causes of drug abuse and the results are shown in Table 4.10 Table 4.10 Students Responses on Factors Contributing to Drug and Substance Cause Frequency Percentage Peer pressure 393 96.6 Family background 122 30.0 Poverty 7 1.7 85 Large amounts of pocket monies 224 55.0 Lack of proper guidance 156 38.3 Indiscipline and youthful rebellion 137 33.7 Stress and depression 18 4.4 Lack of information/ignorance 81 19.9 The results show that peer pressure is the main cause of DSA as indicated by majority (96.6%) of the students. This shows that students need information that could help them resist peer pressure. This may come in terms of lessons or guidance and counselling sessions. Large amounts of pocket monies was cited by 55.0% of the students as leading to DSA among students; 38.3% of the students cited lack of proper guidance as a factor contributing to DSA. This calls on parent’s cooperation to give students moderate pocket money that caters for their basic school needs; 33.7% of the students indicated that indiscipline and youth rebellion contributed to DSA and 30.0% of the students indicated that family background contributed to DSA. Other causes were said to include lack of Information/Ignorance as indicated by 19.9% of the students; Stress and Depression as indicated by 4.4% of the students and poverty as indicated by 1.7% of the students. 86 The head teachers and students were of the view that peer pressure was a leading cause of drug abuse; other key contributing factors were large amount of pocket money, indiscipline and rebellion and poor parenting. The findings of this study disagree with Makokha (1994) which stated that ease of availability was the leading cause of DSA in secondary schools in Nairobi County. 4.7.4 Profiling Drug and Substance Abusers The researcher sought from head teachers how they identified Drug and Substance Abuse cases in the schools. Young people go to great length to conceal their abuse of drugs (Gitau 2007). Studies by Makokha (1994) and NACADA (2006) stated that some head teachers could not identify students who abuse drugs. The study sought to know how the head teachers identify students engaged in Drug and Substance Abuse. A number of indicators of Drug and Substance Abusers were listed for the head teachers to choose from. The results are shown in Table 4.11 87 Table 4.11 Indicators Used by Head Teachers to Identify Drugs Abusers Indicators Yes No f % f % Absenteeism 27 87.1 4 12.9 Violence 31 100.0 0 0 Red eyes 19 61.3 12 38.7 Slurred and heavy speech Poor class performance 26 31 83.9 100.0 5 0 16.1 0 All the school principals responded that Drug and Substance Abuse led poor class performance and violence as indicated by 100% head teacher response. Head teachers also identified students who abused drugs and substances because they were prone to absenteeism and had slurred speech. This was recorded by 87.1% and 83.9% of the head teachers respectively. Another 38.7% of the head teachers indicated that red eyes were one of the indicators of DSA amongst the students. Burnt fingers, smell of alcohol, cigarettes and bhang on the students and withdrawal from others in the school activities, persistent cough, and diarrhoea 88 and blurred vision were other observable signs. On this matter, the study noted that all the head teachers had visible methods to indentify drug abusers among their students, however the researcher noted that the highlighted symptoms could be caused by factors other than DSA; hence head teachers need to investigate further. 4.7.5 Best Strategy that Head Teachers should use to curb Drug and Substance Abuse Okumbe (1999) and Eshiwani (1993) concur that head teachers have legitimate power to enforce discipline and obedience of their students. They should authorise inspection of students’ belongings at the beginning of the term and randomly to control the school of drugs. Students were asked the actions they would want the head teachers to take against students abusing drugs. Table 4.12 shows the responses obtained. Table 4.12 Students Views on Best Strategy that Head Teachers should use to curb Drug and Substance Abuse Action Frequency Percentage Involving parents/ guardians 247 60.7 Guidance 105 25.8 89 Counselling 373 91.6 Expelling notorious cases 62 15.2 Guidance and counselling 278 68.3 Strict School rules 61 15.0 Creating good relations with students 144 35.4 The results show that students had varied suggestions on the best strategy which the head teachers should use to curb Drug and Substance Abuse in the schools. Counselling was the most preferred action with majority of the students (91.6%) indicating preference for this intervention while a combination of guidance and counselling was preferred by 68.3% of the students. This could be interpreted to mean that guidance and counselling is the most preferred strategy to curb Drug and Substance Abuse and head teachers should endeavour to enhance counselling services in the schools. Involving parents/guardians was preferred by 60.7% of the students while 35.4 % showed that a good relation between head teachers and students could be used to curb DSA. Other suggested actions were guidance which garnered support from 25.8% of the students; using strict school rules which had the favour of 15.0% of the students; inspections which had support of 19% of the students and expelling notorious cases which had the favour of 15% of the students. However, expulsion and heavy punishment can only be sanctioned by 90 the Board of Governors with permission from the Ministry of Education. Heavy punishment on the other hand has been banned under the Children’s Act, (2001). 4.7.6 Effects of DSA on Discipline of Students Individuals learn to use substances to manipulate emotions and behaviour and slowly discover that drugs can affect feelings and actions (Gitau, 2007). According to Republic of Kenya (2009), Ngigi (2010) and Cheloti (2009) DSA is the leading cause of strikes and students’ unrest in secondary schools. Head teachers were asked to state effect of DSA on students’ discipline. The results show that all of the head teachers (100%) indicated that DSA had negative effects on discipline of students. When the same question was posed to the students, the results show that 99% of the students indicated that DSA had a negative effect on discipline while 1 % indicated that it had no effect on discipline among students. These concurrence shows that DSA is a root cause of discipline problems in schools. Head teachers were asked to state the discipline cases arising from DSA among students. Table 4.13 shows the responses. 91 Table 4.13 Head Teachers’ Response on Discipline Cases Associated With DSA Effect Frequency Percentage Defiance and disrespect to school authorities 16 52.6 Misuse of school fees 5 16.1 Run ins with teachers 23 74.2 Dropping out of school 7 22.6 Stealing 19 61.3 Absenteeism 27 87.1 The results show that DSA has a number of effects on the discipline of the students. Absenteeism and run-ins with teachers emerged as the main effect of DSA on students’ discipline as indicated by 87.1% and 74.2% of the head teachers respectively. Stealing as named by 61.3% of the head teachers as being manifest as a result of DSA; 52.6% indicated defiance and disrespect to school authorities. Other indiscipline cases as a result of DSA were dropping out of schools as indicated by 22.6% of the head teachers and misuse of school fees as noted by 16.1% of the head teachers. These results show that DSA directly affects the administration of schools and is a problem that must be addressed with speed. 92 The students were also asked to state the discipline cases associated with DSA. Table 4.14 shows the responses. Table 4.14 Students Response on Discipline Cases Associated With DSA Effects Frequency Percentage Rebelliousness 308 76.7 Laziness 62 15.2 Arrogance 87 21.4 Bullying others 289 71.0 Lack of respect to teachers and students 121 29.7 Rudeness 176 43.2 Being rowdy 265 65.1 School unrests 242 59.5 Lack of commitment to learning 366 90.0 Leads to stealing 283 70.0 Mischievousness in class 42 10.3 __________________________________________________________________ The results show that DSA has a number of effects on the discipline of the students. Lack of commitment to learning emerged as the main effect of DSA on students’ discipline with 90.0%. Rebelliousness was named by 76.7% of the 93 students as being manifest as a result of DSA; 71.0% indicated bullying other students was observed as a result of DSA while 70.0% indicated that DSA leads to stealing. Sixty five percent of the students indicated that abusers of drugs and substances usually became rowdy; 59.5% indicated that DSA led to school unrests and 43% indicated that there was observed rudeness. Other indiscipline cases as a result of DSA comprised of lack of respect to teachers and students as indicated by 29.7% of the students; arrogance as cited by 21.4% of the students; laziness as noted by 15.2 % and mischievousness in class as noted by 10 of the students. 4.7.7 Effects of DSA on Student’s Academic Performance Time spent by students in sourcing, concealing and consuming drugs could account for ultimate poor performance in class. Abuse of drugs causes poor health leading to absenteeism and academic decline in learners (Munyoki, 2008) and (NACADA 2006). A study by Kimori (2010) found that DSA affects students’ performance due to mental illness and lack of concentration. School principals were asked to state the effect of DSA on academic performance of students. Table 4.15 lists the responses given. 94 Table 4.15 Head Teachers’ Responses on Effects of DSA on Student’s Academic Performance Effect Frequency Percentage Lateness and Absenteeism 20 64.5 Persistent sickness/Laziness 12 38.7 Not completing assignments 29 93.5 Time wasted during suspensions, expulsion, punishment 28 90.3 Lack of concentration 21 67.7 Shunned by other students 13 41.9 The responses show that DSA has a number of effects on the Academic performance of the students. Inability to complete assignments emerged as the main explanation for students’ poor performance as indicated by 93.5% of the head teachers. Time wasted during suspensions, expulsion and punishments was named by 90.3% of the head teachers as a reason for poor performance by student drug abusers; 67.7% indicated lack concentration in class as leading to poor performance; these, the researcher attributed to the fact that drugs have a lulling effect on users that leads to general malaise (NACADA, 2006; Gitau, 2007; and UNODC, 2010). Lateness and absenteeism from school was cited by 65% as 95 leading to poor performance. An additional 41.9% of the head teachers indicated that abusers of drugs and substances are shunned by other students thus no teamwork leading to poor performance while 38.7% of the head teachers noted that persistent sickness and laziness as a result of DSA led to poor performance among the abusers., students were also asked to state the effects of DSA on students’ academic performance. The results are shown in table 4.16. Table 4.16 Students’ Responses affects of DSA on Student’s Academic Performance Effect Frequency Percentage Lateness and Absenteeism 346 85.0 Laziness 54 13.3 Not completing assignments 279 68.5 Time wasted during suspensions, expulsion 389 95.6 Inattentive in class 248 60.9 Unfriendly to other students 67 16.5 The students’ responses show that DSA negatively affected the Academic performance of the students. Time wasted during suspensions, expulsion was named by majority (95.6%) of the students as having the greatest effect. Lateness and absenteeism followed with 85.0% while 68.5% indicated that drug abusers had a tendency of not completing assignments leading poor performance. Poor 96 concentration in class was cited by 60.9% as a cause for poor performance. Another 16.5% of the students indicated that abusers of drugs and substances are unfriendly to other students; the researcher observed that this could lead to poor performance due to lack of team work during studies and revision. Thirteen percent of the students stated that laziness as a result of DSA led to poor performance amongst abusers. 4.7.8 Effects of DSA on Student’s Well-being Eneh and Stanley (2004) reported that drug abuse causes thrombosis, heart disease, liver cirrhosis, impotence, barrenness, cancer and ultimately death. Hansen (1992) and Gitau (2007) further explained that individuals use substances to manipulate emotions and behaviour but slowly discover that drugs can affect feelings and actions and slow down their motor functioning. Abuse of drugs causes health, discipline and academic problems in secondary schools (Munyoki, 2008) and (NACADA, 2006). Reports from Mathari mental hospital in Nairobi indicate that DSA is one of the main causes of mental illness (Ngigi, 2010). Head teachers were asked to indicate the effects of DSA on students’ wellbeing. All the head teachers (100%) indicated that DSA had negative effects on students’ wellbeing while students had varied answers as shown in Figure 4.7. 97 Figure 4.7 Students’ Views of the Effects of DSA on Student’s Wellbeing 8 (2%) 36 (9%) 373(89%) Effects Of DSA on Students Health Positive No Effect Negative The results show that majority of the students (89%) indicated that DSA had a negative effect on the Wellbeing of students. Nine percent of the students indicated that DSA had no effect on students’ wellbeing while 2% indicated it had a positive effect on students’ wellbeing. Head teachers were asked to indentify health problems in students associated with DSA. The responses obtained are listed in Table 4.17. 98 Table 4.17 Principals’ Response on Effects of DSA on Student’s wellbeing Effect Frequency Percentage Coughing 17 54.8 Untidiness 30 96.8 Mental Disorders 25 80.6 General weakness 17 54.8 STIs 7 22.6 Lack of sleep 18 58.1 The results show that DSA has a number of effects on the health of the students. Untidiness and mental disorders emerged as the most common negative effect of DSA on students’ wellbeing as indicated by 96.8% and 80.6% of the head teachers respectively. Lack of sleep was named by 58% of the head teachers as being manifest as a result of DSA; 54.8% indicated general weakness and coughing was common among drug abusing students while 22.6% indicated that DSA leads to sexually transmitted infections including HIV. The students were also asked to indentify health problems in students associated with DSA. The responses obtained are listed in Table 4.18 99 Table 4.18 Students’ Response on Effects of DSA on Student’s Wellbeing Effect Frequency Percentage Poor eating habits 241 59.2 Coughing 273 67.1 Untidiness 387 95.1 Bad breath 289 71.0 Hallucinations 137 33.7 Mental Disorders 376 92.4 Injuries after fights 308 75.7 General weakness 344 84.5 HIV AIDS 86 21.1 Cancer 95 23.3 Lack of sleep 362 88.9 The results show that DSA has a number of effects on the wellbeing of the students. Untidiness and mental disorders emerged as the most common negative effect of DSA on students’ wellbeing as indicated by 95.1% and 92.4% of the students respectively. Lack of sleep was named by 88.9% of the students as being manifest as a result of DSA; 84.5% indicated general weakness was observed as a 100 result of DSA while 75.7% indicated that DSA leads to injuries due to fights occasioned by being rowdy. Seventy one percent of the students indicated that abusers of drugs and substances had bad breath; 67.1% indicated that DSA led to coughing and 59% indicated that there was observed poor eating habits. Other health effects indicated were cancer as cited by 23.3% of the students and HIV AIDS as noted by 21.1 % of the students. The researcher however observed that the 31% and the 21% of the students who indicated presence of cancer and HIV AIDS may have been influenced by secondary information since the two were medical conditions which students could not accurately observe. The study observed that the head teachers’ and students responses were fairly close and that both parties agreed that DSA had serious but diverse effects on the health of the learners. These study findings agree with those of a study by Ngesu, Ndiku, and Masese (2008) who found that drug dependence had serious health effects on learners and explained that while bhang and mirra affected the abusers instantly, alcohol and cigarettes had slow but far reaching health effects including liver cirrhosis and lung cancer. 4.8 Effectiveness of the Secondary School Curriculum in Curbing DSA The first objective of the study was to assess the effectiveness of the head teachers’ use of the school curriculum as a strategy for curbing DSA among students of public secondary school in Nairobi. Curriculum is all that is planned to 101 enable the students acquire and develop the desired knowledge, skills and attitudes. The Kenya education curriculum is broadly classified into formal curriculum, comprising of subjects taught in class; informal which comprises co- curricular activities and the non-formal curriculum that comprises those learning experiences that occur as a result of interacting with role players in the school environment. Sports, drama and music are used to provide opportunities for educating students about dangers of DSA in a more social and in-formal way by use of well choreographed themes (Muraguri, 2004 and Matsigulu, 2006). Student’s barazas provide opportunities for students to interact freely with school administrators and discuss topics of concern such as DSA (Cheloti, 2009). Teacher competency in handling drug abuse cases is crucial in enhancing effectiveness of the head teacher strategies. The content of the school curriculum is used to create awareness on types, causes and effects of DSA. The secondary school syllabus contains subjects like life skills that address DSA in some topics like self esteem and violence. The subject is compulsory though not examinable hence it is not treated seriously by teachers and students as they tent to concentrate on examinable subjects. Christian Religious Education and biology also have some content on DSA which impart knowledge to learners on dangers of DSA within the formal class room set up (KIE, 2002 and KIE, 2008). Kabiru, (2009) revealed that prevention programmes for curbing DSA, should be planned, 102 comprehensive and have sufficient intensity so as to help learners acquire intended skills and attitudes. Objective one of the study was to assess the extent to which school’s curriculum is used by school administrators as a strategy to curb DSA in the public secondary schools. Head teachers, HODs of Guidance and counselling departments and students were asked to indicate the areas of curriculum used in curbing DSA, whether life skills is taught to students and the effectiveness of school curriculum as a strategy for curbing DSA. The findings have been presented in the following sub sections. 4.8.1 Areas of Curriculum Used to curb DSA The study used a Likert scale to get the views of the head teachers and students on areas of curriculum usage as a strategy to curb DSA in secondary schools. In this section a 5 point Likert scale was used to seek an insight into the nature and usage of the various aspects of the school curriculum and its usage by head teachers in curbing DSA. A rating of “Strongly Agree” had a score of 5 assigned to it; “Agree” was assigned a score of 4; “Neutral” was assigned a score of 3; “Disagree” had a score of 2 assigned to it; “Strongly Disagree” was assigned a score of 1. A weighted mean score was used to interpret the results. A mean score of 5-3.5 was taken to mean that the students agreed with the statement. A mean score of 3.4 to 2.6 was taken to mean that the students were not sure or neutral. A 103 mean score of 2.5 to 1 was taken to mean the students did not agree with the statement. The responses from the head teachers presented and analysed followed by responses of the students on the same issues. A comparison is then drawn between responses of the head teachers and students and interpreted as per curriculum areas. The responses obtained from the head teachers are presented in Table 4.19. 104 Table 4.19 Head teachers’ responses on Areas of Curriculum Used to Curb DSA Question St ro n gl y A gr ee A gr ee N eu tr al D isa gr ee St ro n gl y D isa gr ee M ea n Sc o re F % f % F % f % f % The school curriculum addresses DSA among students 1 3 11 35 17 55 2 6 0 0 3.35 DSA and other social problems are included in the school time table 0 0 9 29 13 42 8 26 1 3 2.97 Teachers are competent in handling DSA in class 1 3 4 13 5 16 14 45 7 23 2.29 Sports are used in curbing DSA in secondary schools 4 13 26 84 0 0 1 3 0 0 4.06 Drama is used in curbing DSA in secondary schools 25 81 6 19 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.81 Music is used in curbing DSA in secondary schools 17 55 13 42 0 0 1 3 0 0 4.48 DSA is tackled during student barazas 13 42 11 35 7 23 0 0 0 0 4.19 School rules are used to control DSA among students 2 6 11 35 3 10 12 39 3 10 2.90 105 On the Likert scale, the head teachers surveyed agreed that the school curriculum adequately addresses the problem of drug abuse in schools. This question posted a mean grade of 3.35. However, they did not agree with the statement that DSA and other social problems are included in the school time table as this statement returned a mean score of 2.97. When asked to indicate whether the teachers were competent in handling DSA among students in class, the head teachers disagreed; as the statement posted a mean score of 2.29. This response shows that the teachers either lacked the prerequisite knowledge on drug abuse issues or feared to discuss drug related issues. The head teachers further indicated that sports are used in curbing DSA in the secondary schools with the statement having a mean score of 4.06. Drama was also used in curbing DSA in secondary with the statement posting a mean score of 4.81 from the head teacher responses. The head teachers also indicated that music is used in curbing DSA in secondary schools with this statement posting a mean score of 4.48. The study findings agree with those of Muraguri (2004) and Matsigulu (2009). A statement on students’ barazas as a tool for tackling DSA among students elicited a mean score of 4.19 showing that head teachers agreed that they used the barazas to address Drug and Substance Abuse problems. A statement on whether school rules are used to control levels of drug abuse in schools elicited mixed reactions from the head teachers as it posted a mean score of 2.90 showing that they were not sure about the effectiveness of school rules in 106 tackling DSA problems or other strategies needed to be applied to support school rules. The same statements relating to the nature of curriculum and its usage towards curbing DSA when presented to the students yielded the following responses as presented in Table 4.20. 107 Table 4.20 Students’ Responses on Areas of Curriculum Used to Curb DSA Question St ro n gl y A gr ee A gr ee N eu tr al D isa gr ee St ro n gl y D isa gr ee M ea n Sc o re F % f % F % f % f % School curriculum addresses DSA among students 201 49 138 34 9 2 36 9 23 6 4.13 DSA and other social problems are included in the school time table 41 10 38 9 59 14 176 43 93 23 2.41 Teachers are competent in handling DSA in class 40 10 47 12 63 15 153 38 104 26 2.43 Sports are used in curbing DSA in secondary schools 257 63 103 25 3 1 23 6 24 6 4.36 Drama is used in curbing DSA in schools 209 51 140 34 0 0 42 10 16 4 4.19 Music is used in curbing DSA in secondary schools 113 28 242 59 7 2 24 6 21 5 3.99 DSA is tackled during student barazas 46 11 137 34 32 8 153 38 39 10 3.00 School rules are used to control DSA in schools 41 10 38 9 58 14 171 42 99 24 2.34 108 Results from Table 4.7 show that the students agreed that the school curriculum addresses DSA among students, as this statement posted a mean score of 4.13 while on the same scale, Table 4.6 shows that the head teachers interviewed were of mixed views posting a mean grade of 3.35. On checking other secondary school syllabuses, the researcher confirmed that Drug and Substance Abuse is part of the science and social studies syllabus in the primary school curriculum, while at secondary school level, drug abuse is part of the Christian religious education (CRE) and life skills syllabus. However a study by Kabiru (2009) found that although topics on DSA were included in the school curriculum, 83.8% of the students in this study indicated that this had not helped to curb Drug and Substance Abuse in schools. The variation in the mean score could indicate that the head teachers felt that the content on DSA in the syllabus was not adequate to address the problem. Both students and head teachers did not agree with the statement that DSA and other social problems are included in the school time table as this statement returned a mean score of 2.41 and 2.97 respectively. This convergence of views could have been occasioned by the fact that DSA was infused as a topic within existing subjects of the curriculum and could not appear in the school time table. On observing some school time tables, the researcher found that DSA did not appear in the teaching time table. However looking at the effects of DSA on the students and education sector as a whole, it is imperative that schools include 109 lessons on DSA and other emerging issues in education in the school time table for the betterment of the learners. Head teachers and students also indicated that the teachers were incompetent in handling DSA among students in class with the statement posting a mean score of 2.41 and 2.29 respectively. This response shows that the teachers either lacked the prerequisite knowledge on drug abuse or feared discussing DSA related issues with students. There is therefore need to empower them through seminars and workshops specifically focusing on Drug and Substance Abuse to boost there confidence. NACADA (2008) and Ngesu (2008) concur that most head teachers lacked the knowledge and skills that would help them deal with drug abuse in schools. On co-curricular activities, students and head teachers indicated that sports are used in curbing DSA in the secondary schools with the statement having a mean score of 4.36 and 4.06 respectively. Drama was also said to be effective in curbing DSA in secondary schools with the statement posting a mean score of 4.19 from student responses and 4.81 from the head teacher responses. These findings agreed with Muraguri (2004) who found that drama was used to eradicate DSA in secondary schools in Starehe and Kamukunji constituencies of Nairobi. The students also indicated that music is used in curbing DSA in secondary 110 schools with this statement posting a mean score of 3.99 while the head teacher responses posted 4.48. Co-curricular activities like sports, music, and drama offer students an opportunity to learn in a non-formal way, and more often from each other. Schools therefore could engage students in inter- class or inter- house music and drama competitions and reap maximum benefits from the strategy, instead of relying on the Kenya music and drama festival organized annually. These findings agree with the finding of a study by Matsigulu (2006) on the role Kenya music festivals in eradicating Drug and Substance Abuse in public secondary schools who found that music, poems drama and dance brought out DSA themes more clearly to the level where students understood better. School administrators use sports as avenues to reduce idleness and enhance socialization among students. They also use well organized themed sports events and branded sporting kits with anti-DSA messages to complement the fight against DSA. On the contrast, studies have shown that sporting events usually turn into ‘drugs markets’ and hunting grounds for drug peddlers as indicated by (Ciakuthi, 1999). The study indicated that some of the students who were good in sports were found to be users of drugs such as bhang, and that some of the after sports celebrations were marked with drug abuse. In this case, the administrators’ objective of using sports to curb DSA may become counter-productive and require more supervision. 111 Classes of music performed during the annual Kenya music festival provide good opportunities to emphasize dangers of DSA. Similarly school heads encourage composition of music with themes on anti DSA to be performed during school events and entertainments days. Matsigulu (2006) concurs that music is one of the best avenues of educating the youth on dangers of drug abuse. There were mixed reaction from the students on whether students’ barazas is a strategy for tackling DSA. This statement posted a mean score of 3.00; but the head teachers agreed with this statement by posting a mean of 4.19. The divergence of views on this statement could be associated with the general preference of topics by students during barazas. Students barazas are open forums that should be used by school authorities to offer advice, create awareness on sources and dangers of DSA listen and answer questions that may arise on the topic. They should be used to sensitize students to report cases of availability or use of drugs to school authority through informal means. Information touching on DSA is sensitive and may be a hindrance to any meaningful discussion on the topic during students’ barazas (Ng’ang’a, 2003 and Ngesu, 2008). More general and friendly topics touching on students welfare or school facilities may dominate such sessions. These findings concurs with a study by Cheloti (2009) which indicated that students prefer using barazas to highlight their problems with the school administration; hence may not be appropriate 112 forums for tackling DSA. However, these findings disagrees with a study by Mungai (2007) who reported that some school principals and teachers used the information from students’ barazas to penalize and discipline students. It is for such reasons that the students’ baraza sessions are not appropriate forums for discussing DSA matters. The head teachers were asked whether school rules are used to control DSA in schools. They were not sure as indicated by a mean score of 2.90. The students disagreed with the statement that school rules are used to control DSA in schools and returned a mean score of 2.34. The general feeling is that school rules are punitive and not corrective. On further observation, the researcher found that most schools rules; prohibit students from being in possession or abusing drugs and further state that any contravention of the rule would lead to expulsion from school. However, students still smoke, drink and use other substances in and out of school in complete disregard to the stated rule. The head teachers on the other hand cannot enforce the rule because it contravenes Ministry of Education policy that prohibits school heads from expelling students; and provisions of the international Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) of which Kenya is a signatory. 113 4.8.2 Life Skills Education as a Curriculum Based Strategy used to curb DSA Life skills education is a program meant to impart knowledge on practical aspects of daily living and skills for individual survival (KIE, 2008). The Kenya Institute of Education developed the life skills to equip learners with knowledge, skills and attitudes to cope with social and behavioral challenges, peer pressure and other emerging issues facing students, as well as enabling them to function well as members of the society. The subject is compulsory, though not examinable and contains topics on communication, self esteem, conflict resolution, stress management, peer pressure, relationships, anxiety, assertiveness and violence among others. Content on drug abuse is contained in life skills syllabus from form one to four; however, no proper emphasis is given to it as DSA is merely mentioned as a part of the main syllabus topics. For example, in form one and two DSA is mentioned in the topic ‘self esteem’ under causes of low self esteem. In form three it is taught in the topic on ‘anxiety’ as one of the causes of anxiety. In form four life skills syllabus, drug abuse is mentioned within the topic of ‘violence’ as one of the causes of violence (KIE, 2008). The researcher therefore sought to know from the students how the subject is handled in the sampled schools. A total 224 students representing 55.0% agreed 114 that it was taught while 184 students representing 45.0% were of a contrary opinion. The student who indicated that there were life skills lessons in their schools were further asked how often the subject was taught. The results are shown in Table 4.21. Table 4.21 Students Responses on Frequency of Teaching Life Skills How often Frequency Percentage Once per week 108 48.2 Twice per week 76 33.9 Fortnightly 40 17.9 Total 224 100 From the students interviewed, a larger proportion (48.2%) indicated that the life skills lessons were taught once per week; 33.9% indicated that the life skills lessons were conducted twice per week and the rest 17.9% indicated that the life skills lessons were conducted fortnightly. This result could be interpreted to mean that even in the schools where life skills were taught, the subject is not allocated adequate time. The researcher concluded that most schools preferred spending time on examinable subjects hence deliberately ignoring life skills. Furthermore, the content of DSA in the life skills syllabus is too little and could not have an impact on cubing DSA. 115 The Ministry of Education and KIE could look into the possibility of expanding content on DSA or develop a syllabus on Drug and Substance Abuse, bearing in mind the negative impact that drug addiction has on students, the school and the nation at large. Mutsotso (2004) concurs that most school heads preferred to concentrate on examinable subjects due to clamour for high grades in national examinations and competition with other schools since support subjects are not examinable. On the contrary, Imbunya (2009) found that Christian religious education enhanced students’ fear of God and helped them shun deviant behaviour like DSA but indicated that it was an elective subject hence some students did not learn it; and this compromises its benefits in curbing DSA. 4.8.3 Responses from G/C Teachers on Use of Curriculum in Curbing DSA Guidance and counselling teachers were interviewed whether the secondary school curriculum was effective in curbing Drug and Substance Abuse in schools. They indicated that the syllabus content on DSA in the Christian religious education and life skills was inadequate adding that in some cases the subjects were not taught since they are optional and non-examinable respectively. Mary, the HOD Guidance and counselling in one school stated that, “DSA was occasionally mentioned during school assemblies and students were warned of the dangers and effects of DSA and further advised to refrain from them”. Some HOD,s noted that content on DSA in the school curriculum was limited. The teachers further indicated that with the revision of the 8-4-4 curriculum over the 116 years, subjects such as social ethics which extensively covered DSA had been removed from the syllabus. Other subjects that tackle substance abuse were Christian religious education as indicated in a study by Imbunya (2009). However, the researcher found that the subject is optional in most schools in Nairobi County. The heads of Guidance and Counselling departments also indicated that some schools were using video shows which had DSA topics and documentaries and movies showing the dangers of DSA among youths to further create awareness among the students, while others had adopted a strategy that limited the access of students to information on DSA. They indicated that some school administrators were of the opinion that introducing the students to information on DSA would arouse their curiosity and thus introduce drug usage in the school. The later schools have generally adopted a zero-tolerance, “just say no” answer to the question of DSA. 4.8.4 Effectiveness of the Secondary School Curriculum as a Strategy for Curbing DSA To summarise the extent to which head teachers use the school curriculum to create DSA awareness, the head teachers and students were asked to rate the effectiveness of the school curriculum in controlling DSA among students. The 117 responses from head teachers are discussed followed by responses from students. Table 4.22 show the results obtained from head teachers. Table 4.22 Head Teachers Responses on Effectiveness of Secondary School Curriculum in curbing DSA Question V er y ef fe ct iv e Ef fe ct iv e Fa irl y ef fe ct iv e Le as t ef fe ct iv e N o t ef fe ct iv e at f* % F % f % f % F % Class Room Lessons 0 0 10 32.2 12 38.7 9 29.0 0 0 Co-curricular Activities 0 0 10 32.3 21 67.7 0 0 0 0 Schools Rules 0 0 0 0 31 100.0 0 0 0 0 * f denotes frequency All the 31 head teachers indicated that the school curriculum played a positive role in curbing DSA in schools, as 38.7% indicated that that classroom lessons on DSA are fairly effective in curbing DSA in schools; 32.2% indicated that classroom lessons were effective while the rest 29.0% are least effective. This agreed with the findings from the Likert scale provided to head teachers and students on use of curriculum analysed in Table 4.19 and Table 4.20. However these study findings disagree with those of Kabiru (2009) who found that the 118 current school curriculum was less effective in dealing with drug abuse problems with 44% concurring while only 16% said it was effective. With regard to co-curricular activities, majority of the head teachers (67.7%) felt that these were fairly effective with the rest 32.3% indicating that co- curricular activities were effective in dealing with DSA problem in schools. This implies that co-curricula activities are more effective than the formal curriculum when used to curb DSA. This could be due to their informal set up that allows students and teachers to interact more freely than during formal class room lessons. All head teachers rated school rules as being fairly effective in curbing DSA; this could be interpreted to mean that although rules prohibiting DSA in schools had been documented, some could not be enforced as they contravene Ministry of Education policies. From the findings, co-curricular activities rank higher than the other two aspects of the curriculum (class room lessons and school rules) in their effectiveness as strategies used to curb DSA in schools by school administration, with majority of the head teachers (67%) indicating that they are fairly effective and 33% showing that they are effective. The researcher observed that the non-formal setting of co- curricular activities encouraged sharing of information on DSA more freely amongst students. Hence being more preferred that other formal curriculum methods like class room lessons. These findings agree with Matsigulu (2006) 119 concur that Kenya music festivals can reduce Drug and Substance Abuse in public secondary schools through music, poems, drama and dance that brought out DSA themes more clearly to the level where students understood better. Muraguri (2004) also concurred that drama can be used to reduce DSA and co- curricular activities were more preferred by students as effective channels for passing information on DSA to the students. On the contrary, a survey by NACADA (2006) disagree and stated that some students were introduced to drug taking during school outings as they interact freely with the public and students from other schools. The researcher observed that students should be closely monitored during such outings so as to reduce cases of infiltration of drugs and substances. Teachers could also inspect students on arrival from school trips to ensure that no drugs and substances are carried into the dormitories. The students were also asked the extent to which they thought various aspects of curriculum were effective in curbing DSA in schools. The results are shown in Table 4.23. 120 Table 4.23 Students Responses on Effectiveness of the School Curriculum in Curbing DSA Effectiveness Frequency Percentage Very effective 136 33.4 Effective 97 23.8 Fairly effective 66 16.2 Least effective 52 12.8 Not effective 56 13.8 Total 407 100 The students indicated that the school curriculum was effective in curbing DSA with the highest number of students (34%) saying that it is very effective, 23.8% said it was effective, 16.2% said it was fairly effective and 12.8% said it was leas effective. Only 13.8% returned a “not effective response”. These results could be interpreted to mean that learners need more information on Drug and Substance Abuse to empower them in making decisions whenever they encountered the temptation and peer pressure to abuse drugs. These could be packaged in different subjects of the school curriculum. Muraguri (2004) and Matsigulu (2006) concur that learners need to receive instruction on DSA while Kabiru (2009) and 121 NACADA (2006) disagree that class room lessons on DSA are not important in curbing DSA. 4.9 Guidance and Counselling as a Strategy for Curbing DSA Objective two of the study sought to determine whether head teachers provide guidance and counselling sessions to curb DSA in schools. The findings are discussed in the following section. The aim of guidance and counselling is to help individuals understand themselves and make informed decisions. Guidance and counselling provides benefits to students by addressing their intellectual, emotional, social and psychological needs (Ouru, 2008). Drug and Substance Abuse is tackled through guidance and counselling by providing developmental, preventive and remedial programs to students. Head teachers also use of trained peer counsellors, guest speakers, and sometimes referring students to professional counsellors. Group counselling is also used especially when addressing subjects of common interest like DSA, while individual counselling is used to address known cases of abusers. The World Drug Report (2011) indicates that guidance and counselling has been used world over as first line intervention to Drug and Substance Abuse among the youth (UNODC, 2011). Information on how guidance and counselling is used as an administrative strategy to curb Drug and Substance Abuse in secondary schools was sought from head teachers, teacher counsellors, and students. The 122 students were asked whether guidance and counselling sessions are offered in their schools. Majority of them256 representing (62.9%) said that guidance and counselling sessions are not conducted in their schools while 151 representing 37.1% indicated that they are conducted. The students were further asked to indicate the lessons covered during guidance and counselling sessions. Table 4.24 shows the responses by the students on the topics covered during guidance and counselling sessions. Table 4.24 Subjects Covered During G/C Lessons as Indicated by Students Subjects Frequency Percentage Sex Education 118 78.1 DSA 73 48.3 HIV& AIDS 132 87.4 School life relations 89 58.9 Stress management 68 45.0 Handling peer pressure 130 86.1 Environmental education 45 29.8 From the students who responded 88% indicated that HIV and AIDS was included in guidance and counselling and 87.4% indicated that handling peer 123 pressure was taught during guidance and counselling sessions. Further 78.1% of those who attend indicated that the lessons covered topics on sex education while 48.3% indicated that topics on drug abuse education were covered. 58.9% indicated that school life relations was covered during guidance and counselling lessons while 45.0% indicated that they were taught about stress management and 29.8%, environmental education. The general observation drawn from the findings were that more time was allocated to topics on HIV, handling peer pressure and sex education. When students were asked whether guidance and counselling sessions were offered in their schools, (63%) of them indicated that they were not offered; and from Table 4.25, counselling lessons cover several areas other than DSA. This shows that less time is spend on Drug and Substance Abuse counselling and that more time was needed to address DSA given its grave effects on the life of the students, school administration and the education sector as a whole. Given the scenario as indicated, time limitation was likely to compromise the effectiveness of guidance and counselling strategy. These findings differ with Kabiru (2009) who found that guidance and counselling sessions were not effective in curbing DSA and that teachers preferred more deterrent measures like suspension and expulsion since drug abuse was considered a very serious offence and contravention of school rules. However, Kabiru conducted the study in Kirinyaga district which is in a rural set 124 up while this study is conducted in an urban set up with different dynamics affecting chid development. The study sought from head teachers the frequency of conducting drug abuse counselling sessions in the schools. Table 4.25 shows the results as provided by the head teachers. Table 4.25 Frequency of Drug Abuse counselling Sessions as Reported by head Teachers Duration Frequency Percentage Weekly 0 0 Monthly 0 0 Termly 3 9.7 As need arises 28 90.3 Total 31 100 The report shows that majority of the head teachers (90.3%) conducted drug abuse counselling only when need arose in the school and only 9.7% were able to conduct it termly. The study also sought from students the frequency of conducting drug abuse counselling sessions in the schools the responses are recorded in Table 4.26. 125 Table 4.26 Frequency of Drug Abuse counselling Sessions as Reported by students Duration Frequency Percentage Weekly 294 72.2 Monthly 133 32.7 Termly 202 49.6 As need arises 158 38.8 The results show that the guidance and counselling sessions are mainly conducted weekly as indicated by majority (72.2%) of the students while49.6% indicated that this happens every term. Another 38.8% of the students indicated that sessions dealing with DSA are conducted when need arises in the schools while 32.7% indicated that drug abuse G/ C sessions are conducted monthly. The researcher further interrogated two head teachers on this finding and found that some students may have mistaken the weekly principals’ address on parade as counselling hence the difference in the head teachers’ and students responses. The head teachers’ responses indicate that they do not have specific time allocated to guidance and counselling and merely rely on occurrence of incidences to 126 prompt a need for counselling. This scenario contradicts the very nature of guidance and counselling which should be a continuous process, and the Government policy that requires that guidance and counselling departments should be established in all schools with school heads being in charge (Republic of Kenya, 2008). The findings agree with study findings by Ouru (2008) who reported that in many schools, guidance and counselling programmes were crisis oriented. The head teachers were asked how often they invite guest speakers to discuss DSA issues with students. The responses are as indicated in Table 4.27. Table 4.27 Head teachers’ Responses on Frequency of Guest Speakers Duration Frequency Percentage Very often 8 25.8 Often 14 45.2 Occasionally 8 25.8 Rarely 1 3.2 Never _ _ Total 31 100 127 Most head teachers in the sampled schools indicated that they invited speakers to discuss DSA with 45.2% indicating they did it oftenly, 25.8% doing it very often, and 25.8% doing it occasionally. Only 3.2% of the head teachers indicated that they rarely invited experts to talk to students. These findings indicate that head teachers treat Drug and Substance Abuse in schools very seriously and invite speakers to educate students on the subject. The students were asked how often the administrators invite guest speakers to discuss issues of DSA in schools. Table 4.28 shows the responses. Table 4.28 Students’ Responses on Frequency of Guest Speakers Duration Frequency Percentage Very Often 65 16.0 Often 160 39.3 Occasionally 69 17.0 Rarely 67 16.4 Never 46 11.3 Total 407 100 The students indicated that the head teachers who invited guest speakers frequently were 39.3%; 16.0% indicated that the guest speakers were invited very oftenly; 17.0% of the students indicated that the guest speakers are invited 128 occasionally; a further 16.4% indicated the guest speakers were rarely invited while 11.3% indicated that head teachers did not invite guest speakers to talk to students on DSA. These findings show that head teachers were utilising guest speakers to guide students through knowledge empowerment. The findings agree with those of the head teachers since 72.3% of the students and 96.8% of the head teachers indicated that guest speakers are invited to talk to students on DSA. These findings disagree with Kaguthi (2004) and Khanyisile (2005) as they indicated that most schools could not afford fees charged by professional counsellors and guest speakers. Kaguthi (2004) asked school heads to source help from NACADA officials while Khanyisile recommended the use of role models within the society to create drug abuse awareness. Furthermore, there is need for the Ministry of Education to develop a policy on drug abuse awareness and possibly train and deploy personnel to district levels to educate students on dangers of DSA. These would work in collaboration with Guidance and Counselling teachers to curb DSA in schools. 4.9.1 Responses from Teacher Counsellors on G/C Strategy Interviews were conducted with 28 heads of Guidance and Counselling departments in the sampled schools. Questions on frequency of counselling sessions, effectiveness of G&C as a strategy, the parties involved and the challenges they faced in carrying out counselling for learners were discussed. All the heads of departments indicated that guidance was a common practice and 129 covered nearly all topics related to students’ life in the school and in the community while counselling was specific and based on a case to case basis. They reported that guidance usually took the form of class room lessons and topics such as sex education, environmental issues, peer pressure, HIV and AIDS relationships among others were taught. They further indicated that most cases requiring counselling were referred to the G& C department by other teachers, the head teacher, prefects or other students. The counselling sessions were held in the staffroom, guidance and counselling department offices, in the open (under trees) in the school compound, or in the head teachers or deputy head teachers’ office. The sessions were usually conducted one to one but in some cases they involved other parties such as parents or guardians. This is in contradiction to good counselling practices as recommended by Chand (2008) stipulating that privacy was fundamental in the counselling process. Peer counselling was cited by 18 of the teacher counsellors as being in use and appreciated by majority of the learners. They indicated that peer counsellors included students who had successfully overcome DSA in the schools, senior prefects and those whom the school had trained on basic counselling skills. There were anti drug abuse clubs in some of the schools as indicated by teacher counsellors and that the use clubs was yielding positive results in anti drug abuse campaigns. 130 4.9.2 Head Teachers’ Role in Guidance and Counselling The study inquired from the head teachers whether they were involved in counselling cases of DSA in the schools and further to state their role. The responses show that 26/31 representing (84%) of the head teachers were directly involved in counselling drug and substances abuse cases in their schools. The head teachers stated that students suspected to be engaged in Drug and Substance Abuse were reported to them. The head teacher then determines the appropriate strategy to deal with the case. In some cases, the head teachers dealt with the matter using their counselling skills and diagonal communication channels. However some cases are referred to the school counsellors, or recommend them for rehabilitation as need arises. School heads also highlighted their responsibility in enacting strict school rules and disciplinary actions on students caught abusing drugs. The schools where interviews were conducted were found to have strict rules prohibiting use of drugs especially smoking and drinking by the students and penalties to those found contravening the rules. The findings however show that 18% of the head teachers were not directly involved in counselling drug and substances abuse cases. These principals preferred to refer such students to teacher counsellors or call their parents to handle the matter. Kabiru (2009) and Maithya (2009) on the contrary found that all head teachers who responded were involved in solving drug and substance abuse in the schools. However it was observed that Maithya and Kabiru 131 conducted their studies in Machakos and Kirinyaga districts respectively which are rural districts in Kenya and that the difference may have been occasioned by city dynamics faced by head teachers in Nairobi. The head teachers were further asked to give an estimate of the drug abuse cases they had handled in the previous term. Table 4.29 shows the responses. Table 4.29 Number of DSA Cases handled by Head Teachers Number of cases Frequency Percentage Less than 5 21 67.7 5-10 6 19.4 11-20 3 9.7 Over 20 1 3.2 Total 31 100 The results show that majority of the head teachers (67.7%) handled less than five cases related to DSA while the rest 19.4% had handled between 5 to 10 cases, and that 9.7% and 3.2% had dealt with 11-20 and over 20 cases respectively. This implies that all the schools surveyed had handled drug abuse cases in the previous term. This was interpreted that DSA was rampant since some cases may have gone un- noticed and /or the head teachers indicated the serious cases only. These 132 sentiments were shared by Kimori (2010) who recorded that although the problem of drug abuse among students is widely known, few teachers and school administrators would directly concede that their own students are affected and go to great length to deny their students involvement in drug abuse. This, the researcher noted was a major hindrance to the fight against drug abuse in schools. The head teachers further stated that guidance and counselling had helped students make informed choices in relation to their education, career and personal development. Head teachers stated that through counselling students were able to set a career path, reshape their behaviours and change their attitude on drugs. Through mentoring and role modelling the guidance and counselling sessions had helped students to overcome drug addiction. The head teachers also stated that peer counselling was useful in changing students’ behaviour and adolescent attitudes towards drug abuse. However they indicated limitation of time for implementing counselling programmes, inadequate skills in drug abuse counselling and lack of finances for paying professional counsellors and speakers. 4.9.3 Effectiveness of Guidance and Counselling as a Strategy to Curb DSA The study which sought to determine whether the head teacher uses guidance and counselling sessions to curb DSA, a question on the effectiveness of the strategy was asked to the head teachers and the students. The responses from head teachers were discussed followed by responses from students. Table 4.24 show the results obtained from head teachers. The head teachers were asked to indicate the 133 effectiveness of guidance and counselling as a strategy to curb DSA in the schools. Table 4.30 shows the results regarding their rating of the effectiveness. Table 4.30 Principals’ Views on Effectiveness of G/C as a Strategy for Curbing DSA Effectiveness Frequency Percentage Very effective 22 70.9 Effective 7 22.6 Fairly effective 2 6.5 Least effective _ _ Not effective _ _ Total 31 100 Majority of the head teachers (70.9%) showed that guidance and counselling was very effective for curbing DSA in schools. Another 22.6% indicated that it was an effective strategy while 6.5% were of the opinion that it was a fairly effective strategy for curbing Drug and Substance Abuse in schools. These findings are in tandem with Government policy as stated in the national strategy on prevention, control and mitigation of Drug and Substance Abuse 2008-2013; that guidance 134 and counselling departments should be established in all schools to help deal with students’ problems (Republic of Kenya, 2008). It further agrees with study findings of Kabiru (2009), Ouru (2008), and Maithya (2009) where 78%, 90% and 87% of the principals respectively agreed that guidance and counselling is effective in dealing with the problem of Drug and Substance Abuse and as a strategy for enhancing discipline in secondary schools. The students were also asked to rate the effectiveness of guidance and counselling as a strategy to curb DSA. The results were as indicated in Figure 4.8. Figure 4.8 Students’ View of the Effectiveness of Guidance and Counselling The results show that a majority of the students (65%) indicated that counselling was an effective strategy in the fight against DSA in schools while 11% indicated 135 that counselling was not effective, 24% said they do not know the effectiveness of G&C in curbing DSA. These findings agree with the head teachers’ views that guidance and counselling is effective in curbing DSA. Maithya (2009) and Khanyisile (2005) also concur and state that guidance and counselling is effective in helping students cope with peer pressure that may drive them to abuse of drugs. 4.9.4 Teacher Counsellors’ View of Effectiveness of G/C in Curbing DSA The teacher counsellors were also asked the effectiveness of DSA guidance and counselling, 100% agreed that it was the most effective strategy in dealing with drug problems as well as other students’ problems. However, 57% of the head of G&C departments indicated that their departments were not very effective in dealing with DSA in schools. They attributed this to a number of dynamic school environment issues. The study was informed that guidance and counselling is a non-examinable subject hence was given little consideration by administrators, teachers and students. The schools were said to concentrate on examinable subjects and thus little or no time and resources; as was the case in some schools, were committed to guidance and counselling. Of the teacher counsellors who were interviewed, 45% indicated that the current Guidance and Counselling departments could not effectively attend to students’ needs, as the counsellors usually double up as teachers in other subjects. They 136 lacked enough time to devote to counselling students, which they said is a lengthy process requiring sufficient time and patience. Similarly, they indicated that limitation of time hindered them from updating themselves on emerging trends and patterns on DSA among the youths. They for example indicated that they were not able to keep track of the names used by students to refer to the drugs. Lack of counselling rooms were also compromising their efforts. They also stated that some of the drug abuse problems were beyond principals and teacher counsellors’ competence. The teacher counsellors however noted that G/C was more effective in influencing behaviour change among female students than their male counterparts. While all the head teachers and HODs agreed that guidance and counselling is effective in curbing DSA, 35% of the students contradicted this view and said the strategy is not effective. Although the number of students contradicting is small, the researcher observed that it could form a basis for further study to establish the source of the divergent views. 4.9.5 Challenges Faced by G/C Teachers in Curbing DSA in Schools The head teachers were asked to name the challenges facing guidance and counselling as an administrative strategy used to curb DSA in schools. They identified lack of proper training on drug abuse counselling. Study found that 137 there was limited number of teachers who could competently handle students with DSA problems. Majority of the head teachers cited lack of support from other stakeholders such as parents; who at times refused to cooperate with the school and withdrew their children before the counselling process was over. Ministry of Education had not formulated clear policies that could enhance the department and provincial administration at times failed to apprehend sellers of chang’aa, muratina, Miraa and bhang operating in communities around the school. Some of the principal however lauded the support of the provincial administration in this mater. The head teachers also cited the negative attitude of parents and students towards guidance and counselling as a hindrance to the success of the strategy. The counselling component was made hard by the refusal of students to open up and the state of denial by parents who in turn blame DSA among students on head teacher’s laxity and lack of competence in enforcing discipline in the school. The head teachers also indicated that the cost of engaging professionals in drug abuse counselling was prohibitive yet this was a specialised area and training in general counselling skills was insufficient. Inviting guest speakers was also expensive for most schools due to limited funding from the Government. Some head teachers also indicated that, drugs that infiltrated school environs came from the community whom they had no control over. This study noted therefore that external help was necessary in dealing with the problem. They also lamented the rapid change in trends in the drug world accompanied by top secrecy. This posed 138 a great challenge as the language used by peddlers and users remained strange to the teachers hampering identification of abusers and incapacitating the counselling process. The Heads of guidance and counselling departments were also asked to indicate the challenges facing guidance and counselling when used as an administrative strategy to curb DSA in schools. They noted that the main problem was stigma and attitude towards counselling amongst the student community. Some of them indicated that any student who was sported at the counselling office was treated with suspicion by fellow students and staff. This means that teachers should come up with more innovative strategies to eradicate stigma associated with seeking counselling by demystifying the whole process through open discussions, explaining the importance of counselling and also having the sessions in a friendly place. Another challenge was lack of proper training among the guidance and counselling teachers and workload assigned to them in other subjects. This left limited time usually after lessons, in the evenings or early in the morning. Day schools could not benefit from such arrangements as students leave school after lessons to return home. They also lamented the rapid changing language, drug names and increase in supply of hard drugs in the community and affluence associated with drugs. This implies that teacher counsellors needed refresher courses from time to time to remain competent and relevant. 139 4.10 School Community Involvement as Strategy for Curbing DSA School community is the catchment from which a school draws its strengths and opportunities. The role of the community in the fight against DSA is to alert the school principal of any cases of drug suppliers and users, while the police could regularise patrols around the school to ensure drugs are not sold to students and apprehend suspected dealers. The school community is also a source of cheap labour and food supplies to the school (Wangai, 2001). However the community can be a threat to the survival of the institution and weaken the administrative structures of the school if the same community use their proximity to the students and the school to sneak drugs and substances to the learners. The third objective of the study was to establish whether head teachers involved the community around the school in curbing DSA in the schools. Questions were asked about key stake holders in the school community and how they have been incorporated in the fight against drugs in the schools. Information on school community relations was sought from the head teachers and the students. The head teachers were asked whether the community around the school contributes to increase in DSA among students in the schools. The responses showed that 94% agreed that the school community contributes to increase in DSA while 6% were of a contrary opinion. The same question was also posed to the students. The results show that 368 students representing (90%) were of the opinion that communities around schools contribute to increases in DSA in 140 schools while only 39 of them representing 10% were of a contrary opinion. The researcher observed that the head teachers and the students were of a similar opinion that the community around school contributed to increase in DSA. These results could be interpreted to mean that some members of the community supplied drugs and substances to students, and that Alcohol was brewed and bhang planted and sold to students from villages neighbouring the schools. In some schools, the principals commented the provincial administration for raiding alcohol dens and apprehending the suppliers, while in others they specifically blamed the community for not reporting the places and persons where students were seen to visit and buy drugs and alcohol. The researcher observed that the local chiefs, church elders and pastors could play significant role in tackling cases of drugs and substances through church sermons and public barazas. These findings agree with those of Wangai (2001), NACADA (2006) and KIPPRA, (2006) who found that the community around the school supply more than 50% of drugs consumed by students in Kenya and that if the war against drug abuse is to be won, the community must be involved. KIPPRA (2006) further explained that other sources of drug supply were the police, fellow students, and employees of the school. Munyoki (2008) and Kimori (2010) found that in addition to alcohol, students abuse cigarettes and miraa which drew them from school to provide labour in Miraa cultivation, brewing of chan’gaa and sell 141 of cigarettes and tobacco and that participation in drug related activities was responsible for 65% of all school drop outs in Kajiado and Kisii, Embakasi, and Kikuyu districts of Kenya respectively. A study by Khanyisile (2005) argues that there is official ambivalence towards substance use in Kenya. Miraa for example is a drug whose abuse results in dependence, yet the Government treats it as a valued export commodity competing with tea and coffee in importance. According to Khanyisile (2005), this is a contributing factor to drug abuse by Kenyan youth. The study then concluded that indeed the community greatly contributes to drug abuse problems in schools and that if any strategies were to succeed in tackling the drug problem, it should arise from Government policy however expensive it may be and incorporate members of the community. In Nigeria, a study by Olatuwara and Odejide (1994) found that the local community fuelled the drug supply in schools and that the same scenario was replicated in other African countries. According to Olatuwara and Odejide, abject poverty caused most students to be vulnerable. On the contrary, this study found that, a lot of pocket money given to some students by their affluent parents and guardians was one of the major causes of DSA. This disagrees with the findings of NACADA (2006) that high levels of poverty were responsible for drug abuse among students. Paradoxically, affluence is a cause of substance abuse among the youth in most countries of the world as well as poverty as recorded in studies by 142 Corrigan (1996), in Ireland, Khanyisile (2005), in South Africa, Imbosa (2002), and Ngesu (2008) in Kenya. According to Khanyisile (2005)), some youth from rich families abuse substances because they can afford them, while some from poor families abuse drugs due to frustrations. 4.10.1 School Community Participation in Curbing DSA The head teachers and students were given a number of statements seeking to establish how the school community participates in curbing DSA among students in secondary schools. A rating of “Strongly Agree” had a score of 5 assigned to it; “Agree” was assigned a score of 4; “Neutral” was assigned a score of 3; “Disagree” had a score of 2 assigned to it; “Strongly Disagree” was assigned a score of 1. A weighted mean score was used to interpret the results. A mean score of 5-3.5 was taken to mean that the students agreed with the statement. A mean score of 3.4 to 2.6 was taken to mean that the students were not sure or neutral. A mean score of 2.5 to 1 was taken to mean the students did not agree with the statement. The results are analysed, discussed and interpreted beginning with findings from the head teachers followed by those of the students. Table 4.31 show the responses from the head teachers. 143 Table 4.31 Head Teachers’ Views on the Role of School Community in curbing DSA Statement St ro n gl y A gr ee A gr ee N eu tr al D isa gr ee St ro n gl y D isa gr ee M ea n Sc o re f % f % f % f % f % Students obtain drug supplies from community around the school 22 71 7 23 0 0 2 6 0 0 4.58 The local community know drug abusing students 7 23 23 74 1 3 0 0 0 0 4.19 Drug peddlers are known by local community 12 39 17 55 0 0 2 6 0 0 4.26 Poor parenting contributes to DSA in schools 13 42 17 55 0 0 1 3 0 0 4.35 PTA and BOG are involved in tackling DSA problems in the school 9 29 15 48 2 6 5 16 5 0 3.90 Local community is involved in tackling DSA problems in the school 1 3 6 16 5 2.32 The results show that the students obtain drug supplies from the community around the school as indicated by a mean score of 4.58. The head teachers were affirmative that the local community knows the students abusing drugs and substances. There was agreement that the drug peddlers are known by local community as indicated by a mean score of 4.26. Poor parenting was also blamed for DSA cases in schools as a score of 4.35 was posted. The statement regarding 144 whether the PTA and BOG are involved in tackling DSA problems in the school elicited mixed reactions as indicated by a mean score of 3.26. The students were given a number of statements seeking to establish how the school community participates in curbing DSA among students in secondary schools. The results are shown in Table 4.32 145 Table 4.32 Students’ Views on the Role of School Community in Curbing DSA Statement St ro n gl y A gr ee A gr ee N eu tr al D isa gr ee St ro n gl y D isa gr ee M ea n Sc o re F % f % f % f % f % Students obtain drug supplies from the community around the school 225 55 110 27 33 8 3 1 36 9 3.35 The local community know drug abusing students 161 40 103 25 29 7 60 15 54 13 2.97 Drug peddlers are known by local community 231 57 137 34 17 4 8 2 14 3 2.29 Poor parenting contributes to DSA in schools 255 63 109 27 25 6 9 2 9 2 4.06 PTA and BOG are involved in tackling DSA problems in the school 93 23 82 20 136 33 29 7 67 16 4.81 Local community is involved in tackling DSA problems in the school 22 5 44 11 36 9 206 51 99 24 4.48 146 The results show that the students were neutral on whether student drug abusers obtain drug supplies from the community around the school as indicated by a mean score of 3.35. They further disagreed that the local community knows the students abusing drugs and substances and that the drug peddlers are known by local community as indicated by a mean score of 2.97 and 2.29 respectively. The head teachers on the other hand agreed that Students obtain drug supplies from the community, the local community know drug abusing students and Drug peddlers are known by local community. This divergent of views implied that students go to a great length to conceal information on DSA. This, the researcher observed could compromise the fight against DSA. Both head teachers and students agreed that poor parenting contributes to increase in levels of DSA in schools with head teachers posting a mean score of 4.35 while students posted a mean score of 4.06. Regarding whether the PTA and BOG are involved in tackling DSA problems in the school, both head teachers and students agreed as indicated by a mean score of 3.90 for head teachers and 4.81 for students. They further indicated that the local community is involved in tackling DSA problems in the school as indicated by a mean score of 4.48 but head teachers disagreed with the statement and further indicated that the local community was rarely involved in tackling DSA problems in the school as indicated by a mean score of 2.32. The researcher observed that Government policy on community policing requires that members of the public should report elements of 147 lawlessness sited in their community to enable police and provincial administrators deal with the problem. Given that the BOG and PTA are key stake holders in the management of schools, there is need for them to be actively involved in finding solutions to problems affecting the proper functioning of the schools. These findings disagree with Ogachi (2002), who found that the community was very instrumental and supportive in assisting the school management in all matters relating to resource mobilization, discipline and financing school programmes. However Ogachi did his study in Kajiado and Kisii counties which are in a rural set up as opposed to this study conducted in the capital city of Nairobi. The students were asked about how they thought the school community could minimize DSA in schools. Of the students’ responses, 76% indicated that the school community and the Government should work together to ensure that drugs and substances are eradicated from the society. The students indicated that this should be the main objective of the school community because by removing the supply of the drugs and substances the schools will be ridded of drugs. Students indicated that school administrators, parents, BOG, church leaders, Government agencies and the provincial administrators need to liaise and work towards this objective. 148 The students were asked to indicate how parents could assist in curbing DSA in schools. From the responses, 64% indicated that parents need to be more actively involved in the upbringing of the students and follow up on them in school, at home and in the society. This would go a long way in monitoring; guiding and ensuring students get to know the dangers of DSA. This would also ensure the parents are informed on the drugs issues among students. However, 23% reported that parents need to stop taking sides with their children when they are caught being involved in DSA. They further explained that this attitude encourages students to engage in DSA as they have the backing of their parents. The head teachers also indicated that parents should assist in curbing DSA in schools. All the head teachers stated that there is need for parents to seek information on DSA and discuss with their children. They also stated that the parents should stop antagonising school administrators with regard to DSA problem among students. The study also sought the views of the students on how PTA and BOG could be involved in curbing DSA in schools. Of the total sampled students 63% indicated that the PTA and BOG could encourage and incorporate other stakeholders in the schools community especially parents and Governmental agencies in curbing DSA. They could use parents meetings and open days to sensitize parents on the dangers of DSA and encourage them to cooperate with school authorities as opposed blaming them whenever cases of DSA were cited in the school. They could also support the school to identify and invite drug abuse experts to speak 149 during parents meetings to ensure that parents are knowledgeable in DSA matters. Another 10% of the students indicated that the BOG and PTA should authorise severe punishment to students caught in DSA in the schools. On the other hand, the head teachers indicated that the BOG and PTA should attend meetings and encourage all parents to attend meetings to foster interactions between the school administrators and the parents. In so doing, the parents may use such forums to suggest strategies and critique existing ones with an aim of improving them. Of the head teachers who responded, 63% indicated that the PTA and BOG should persuade, encourage and mobilise other stakeholders in the schools community especially parents and Governmental agencies to participate in tackling the Drug and Substance Abuse problem. The head teachers also indicated that the BOG should help identify experts to facilitate drug abuse awareness campaigns in schools. The head teachers were also asked about how they thought the school community could assist in minimizing DSA among students. All the head teachers indicated that the school community should work towards eliminating the supply of drugs to students since drug suppliers were known by members of the community. Head teachers were asked to name the challenges thy encountered in fighting drug abuse in schools. They highlighted the presence of drug barons in the school 150 community indicating that this was complicating their efforts to curb DSA. One head teacher; Nelson said, “The flashy lifestyles enjoyed by the drug barons made it hard to persuade and convince the students that drugs were dangerous; as some students viewed it as a lucrative business.” Another head teacher; Jonah said, “Some students were associated with powerful drug barons, who used them as drug suppliers.” The head teachers blamed the Government for failing to decisively deal with the drug problem in the society. These findings agrees with Khanyisile (2005) who argues that there is official ambivalence towards substance use in Kenya citing the example of alcohol and tobacco being a cause of deadly diseases, yet remain legal with the two substances being a source of tax-income; the brewing and use of indigenous alcoholic drinks is mainly illegal, yet the production and use of alcoholic drinks on an industrial scale is extensive and legal. It is such contradictions that further complicate the fight against drug abuse in learning institutions. The KIPPRA (2006) shares similar sentiments when they found that most drugs are taken in other places other than school. The study showed that alcohol is taken in a pub, while tobacco, miraa and inhalants are taken at home. Illicit drugs like bhang, cocaine are either taken in private places 27% or in the bush, 24%. All 151 these areas, the study notes, are outside the jurisdiction of the school. With these findings, there is need for an in-depth study on the strategies the Government may use to curb DSA in schools. On interview with G/C teachers, they also indicated that it was part of the trend in the community for young people to go partying and this was celebrated even on national radio, television, newspapers and magazines which devoted substantial coverage to such events where drugs and substances were abused. Such stories were accompanied with photographs of youths smoking or being inebriated. Such activities send confusing signals to the youths and further frustrate the efforts to effectively deal with the problem. One of the HODs of guidance and counselling in a school whom the study chose to call Mary indicated that “most of the drugs abused by students were sourced from their school surrounding and that good community relations were important in curbing DSA.” She said that their head teacher sometimes used police, provincial administrators and church leaders to fight drug problems in the school. She further said that the head teacher called the police whenever he felt that the DSA case was more of a criminal activity and not an issue of discipline. 152 4.11 Influence of Head Teachers’ Characteristics on strategies Used to curb DSA Objective five sought to determine how the head teachers’ strategies used to curb DSA are influenced by head teacher characteristics classified as age, gender, qualifications and experience. The results obtained from objective 5 were analysed using inferential statistics. A hypothesis Ho1: There is no significant relationship between head teachers’ characteristics and strategies used to curb DSA in secondary schools when the characteristics are classified as age, gender, academic qualifications, and experience. A Likert scale of values ranging from 5- 1 was used to determine the most significant correlations. Correlations range between +1 and -1. A correlation of 0 or anything close to it would mean a minimal relationship between the 2 variables. A negative value of a correlation means that the relationship is inverse, that is to say; when the value of one variable increases then the other decreases. As in the case of this study, when application of a strategy increases, the levels of DSA degrease and vice versa. 4.11.1 Hypothesis Testing The following null hypothesis was used to test if there was a significant relationship between head teacher characteristics and strategies used by head teachers’ choice of strategies. 153 Ho1: There is no Significant Relationship between Head Teachers’ Characteristics and Strategies used to curb DSA in Secondary Schools When the Characteristics are classified as Age, Gender, Academic Qualifications, and Experience. Head teacher administrative strategies such as; (punishment, exclusion from school, class room lessons, co-curricular activities, guidance and counselling, peer counselling, parental involvement, school rules, diagonal communication) were measured against head teacher characteristics, and only those found to be very significant against each of the head teacher characteristics have been discussed in Table 4.36. The acceptable level of significance for the (χ²) test of independence was 0.05. Levels of significance found to be greater than 0.05 implied that the null hypothesis is rejected; on the contrary, if the level of significance was found to be less than 0.05, then the null hypothesis was accepted. A test of significance was performed on school curriculum against age, experience, academic qualification and gender. The results are shown in Table 4.33. 154 Table 4.33: Secondary School Curriculum against Head Teachers’ Age, Gender, Academic Qualifications, and Experience. age Gender academic qualifications head teacher experience School Curriculum chi test Pearson Correlation 40.532 -.625 40.532 -0.103 40.532 -.598 40.532 -.625 Sig. (2- tailed) 0.581 0.581 0.581 0.581 Level of sig =0.05; Pr = 0.067;df-1 Table 4.26 shows χ2 results on the differences in the use of school curriculum as a strategy across different ages, experience, qualification and gender of head teachers. The results show that the calculated χ2 was 40.532, and the level of significance was 0.581 which is greater than 0.05, the acceptable level of significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis Ho1: there is no significant relationship between head teachers’ characteristics and strategies used to curb DSA in secondary schools when the characteristics are classified as age, gender, academic qualifications, and experience was rejected. This implies that the ages, experience and qualification of head teachers are very significant in influencing the use of school curriculum in curbing DSA. However the head teacher’s gender was not significant in influencing the use of school curriculum in curbing DSA as indicated by a Pearson correlation of -0.103. This is a true reflection, since aspects 155 of school curriculum such as class room lessons are determined by the syllabus and head teachers; whether male or female, have no control over the content. A test of significance was also performed on guidance and counselling verses head teachers’ age, experience, qualification and gender. The results are shown in Table 4.34. Table 4.34 Guidance and Counselling against Head Teachers’ head teachers’ Age, Gender, Academic Qualifications, and Experience. age Gender academic qualifications head teacher experience Guidance and counselling Chi test Pearson correlation 31.000 -.625 31.000 -1.000 62.000 -.313 62.000 -.625 Sig. (2- tailed) 0.054 0.581 0.086 0.054 Level of sig 0.05 level (2-tailed).df=1 Table 4.28 shows χ2 results on the differences in the application of Guidance and Counselling strategy across different ages, experience and gender of head teachers. The results show that the calculated levels of significance were 0.054, 0.054, 0.086 and 0.581 respectively for age, experience, qualifications and gender and were greater than the χ2 acceptable level of significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis Ho1: there is no significant relationship between head teachers’ 156 characteristics and strategies used to curb DSA in secondary schools when the characteristics are classified as age, gender, academic qualifications, and experience was rejected. This implies that the age, experience, qualification and gender of head teachers are significant in influencing the use of Guidance and Counselling strategy to address DSA at -0.625, -0.625, -0.313 and 1.000 respectively. However, the study shows that gender of the head teacher is very significant in influencing the use of G/C as a strategy for curbing DSA as indicated by a coefficient of correlation of - 1.000. Ouru (2008) and Mungai (2007) concur with these findings and reported that female principals preferred Guidance and Counselling strategy in dealing with students problems while their male counterparts preferred stringent measures like suspension. However the head teachers’ qualifications were less significant with a coefficient of correlation of -0.313 implying that head teachers qualifications did not determine their use of Guidance and Counselling strategy to curb DSA. Guidance and counselling helps students to understand themselves and make informed choices yet many students do not understand the process and more often associate it with punishment. Ngesu, Ndiku and Masese (2008) reported that head teachers need to enhance the G/C departments and demystify the counselling process so 157 that students can be free to share their concerns with counsellors. The researcher also noted that most counselling teachers in the schools visited were female. This scenario may compromise the success of guidance and counselling due to gender stereotype where boys associate counselling with females. More male teachers need to undergo training in counselling in order to have gender balance and variety of views toward solving problems such as DSA. To determine if there is a relationship between school community and age, experience, qualifications and gender of the head teacher, a χ2 test was performed and the results are shown in Table 4.35. Table 4.35 School Community involvement against head teachers’ Age, Gender, Academic Qualifications, and Experience. age Gender academic qualifications head teacher experience School community Pearson χ2 Pearson Correlation 13.83 9 -.661* 3.044 -1.000* 13.527 -.661* 3.044 -.313 Sig. (2- tailed) 0.07 0.081 0.054 0.086 χ 2 is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). 158 Table 4.30 shows χ2 results on the effects of head teacher characteristics on the use of the school community in curbing DSA. The results show that the calculated χ 2 was 13.839, 13.527, 3.044 and 3.044 respectively. The calculated level of significance was 0.07 for age, 0.054 for head teacher experience, 0.081 for head teacher academic qualifications and 0.086 for gender. All were greater than 0.05. Therefore, the null hypothesis Ho1: there is no significant relationship between head teachers’ characteristics and strategies used to curb DSA in secondary schools when the characteristics are classified as age, gender, academic qualifications, and experience was rejected. The coefficient of correlation between the use of school community as a strategy against the age, experience, academic qualifications and gender of the head teachers was -.661, -.661, -1.000 and -.313. This implies that the age and experience of the head teacher are significant in determining their choice of using school community to curb DSA. This could mean that the older and more experienced head teachers were able to engage the school community in finding solution to drug abuse problems. Academic qualification of the head teacher was very significant in influencing the head teachers’ choice to engage the school community in dealing with drug abuse problems. It posted a correlation coefficient of -1.000. Interpreted further could 159 mean that head teachers with higher academic qualifications were able to understand and form strategic relation with key personalities in their school environments. Such relations were useful in controlling drug peddling from the community to the school. However, the head teacher’s gender was less significant in determining whether the principal involves school community or not. Implying that head teachers did not choose to use the school community because they were either male or female. Interviews with the heads of G/C departments revealed that the personal characteristics have an effect on the administrative strategies adopted by the head teachers and in turn the school. Regarding influence of age and gender 17 G/C teachers indicated that male, older head teachers (45 year and above) took a casual approach with regard to dealing with drugs and substance abuse among their students. Having expelled and dealt with many discipline cases, they rarely gave personal touch to the handling of DSA cases. This group of administrators was said to adopt the iron hand tactics in dealing with the DSA problem and would easily recommend for expulsion or suspension any student found to be in possession of drugs. They however indicated that female older administrators on the other hand were said to be compassionate about the drug problem. They treated students hooked to drugs with understanding as they would treat their own children. They emphasized on soft approaches like counselling and guidance before the hard approach of expulsion and suspension. 160 On the other hand young female head teachers were said to be apprehensive of dealing with students especially boys involved in DSA. The G/C teachers indicated that the young female head teachers did not want to come into contact with such boys because they appear rough, unkempt and near-violent. These female head teachers usually delegated cases related to DSA to male deputy head teachers or schools’ disciplinary committees. They further indicated that for young male head teachers the approaches were varied with some being compassionate as they understood the DSA situation among the students while others took an iron hand approach as they felt that their authority was being challenged. 4.11.2 Discussions and Interpretation of Hypothesis Ho1 Chi square test of independence was used to test hypothesis on head teacher characteristics of age, gender, qualifications and teaching experience against different strategies adopted to curb DSA. The null hypotheses Ho4: There is no significant relationship between head teachers’ characteristics and strategies adopted to curb DSA was rejected. This implies that indeed head teacher characteristics influence the strategy they use to curb DSA in the schools. However some strategies were found to be more significant to head teacher characteristics while others were less significant. The full analysis has been included in appendix 6. These findings agree with the findings from descriptive statistics which indicate that head teacher characteristics influenced the choice of administrative strategies used to curb DSA. 161 Concerning the age of the principal, the finding of this study agree with Studies done by Mokiru (2003), Misuro (2004), Gertude (2006) and Ouru (2008) who indicated that principals’ age had an effect on their attitudes and influenced their preferred choice of action on school matters. The studies found that principals aged between 35-47 years had a positive attitude towards guidance and counselling as a corrective strategy. According to these studies, older principals were less ambitious, more pre-occupied with retirement plans. They were less motivated and would observe happenings in the schools without taking corrective action. In this regard, where the older heads become disinterested, TSC could use staff balancing and succession management strategies to ensure that such principals are deputised by young innovative persons to understudy and support them while preparing to take over upon their retirement. They could also ensure that principals do not serve in one station for more than ten years and especially when the general performance of the school is seen to be declining. On principals’ gender, these findings agree with the study by (Ouru, 2008) who argued that male principals are unwilling to embrace new ideas or ways of doing things as they believe they are naturally leaders while female principals believe in dialoguing whenever a problem arose in the school perhaps due to their social role as mothers in the society. On the contrary, the findings of this study disagree with King’endo (2007) who found no inter-relationship between the head teachers’ gender and levels of drugs among their students. The role of gender in influencing 162 decision making process was an area that needs further investigations. On principals’ qualifications and experience, the study findings are in tandem with findings by Ouru (2008); and Oside (2003) who found that handling students for a long time makes the head teachers know their students well and enhances the understanding of their roles as principals better. While Mutisya (2000) indicated that schools which have long serving and experienced administrators have less discipline problems. It is therefore imperative that the Ministry of Education and Teachers Service Commission should scale up the minimum academic requirements for heads of schools while also considering the individuals teaching experience. These would enhance efficiency and effectiveness in school administration and curb the incidences where factors, other than merit have been used to promote teachers to headship. 4.12 Influence of School Categories on Choice of Strategies used to Curb DSA Schools in Kenya are broadly categorised into National schools, Provincial or County schools and District schools. They are further categorised according to their operational characteristics as; boys boarding, boys day, girls boarding, girls day, mixed boarding, and mixed day (Ministry of Education, 2010). The school category determines the form one entry behaviour of students; with national schools taking the highest academic achievers followed by county schools and 163 district schools respectively. The school plays an important role in primary prevention of DSA through education provided on various subjects (Kabiru, 2009). Gitau (2007) emphasised that boys have an intrinsic tendency to experiment on ‘nearly anything’ hence were at a higher risk to abuse drugs due to peer pressure. King’endo (2007) and NACADA (2006) found that drug abuse prevalence was higher in boys’ schools followed by mixed schools and less drug problems were reported in girls’ schools. The sixth objective of the study was to establish whether head teachers strategies used to curb DSA were influenced by the school category. The head teachers were asked how school categories influence the level of DSA among students. Majority of them 87.1% indicated that girls’ national schools registered very few DSA cases. This was due to stringent rules and regulations in these schools and the selection of the students to join these schools which ensured only bright students joined these schools. Boys’ national schools did not register any significant difference with the other boys provincial and district schools. The provincial and district day schools especially the day schools had a higher prevalence of DSA due to the fact that students were in constant contact with the community which was cited as a major source of drugs consumed by students. The study found that there was little supervision, attention, and monitoring by parents, who were mainly busy working to meet the needs of the families. 164 The teacher counsellors were asked in item 6 of the interview guide how school categories influenced administrative strategies adopted to curb DSA among students. 87% of them indicated that there was no marked difference in the administrative strategies adopted by the head teachers across the varied categories of schools as the DSA problem is uniform across these categories. 21% however indicated that boys’ day schools administrators were forced to adopt stringent measures to check the inflow of DSA due to the higher interaction of the students with the community who supply the drugs. Of the principals who responded, 57% indicated that boarding schools usually conduct checks on the opening day and monitors students during school outings whereas day schools have to institute a continuous monitoring process to ensure students do not get access to drugs in and out of the schools. 4.12.1 Hypothesis Testing The sixth objective of the study was to establish how the head teachers’ strategies used to curb DSA are influenced by the school category. The following null hypothesis was used to test if there was a significant relationship between schools and strategies used by head teachers’ choice of strategies. The following null hypothesis was used to test if there was a significant relationship between school category and head teachers’ choice of strategies. 165 Ho2: There is no Significant Relationship between Schools and Strategies Used by Head Teachers to Curb DSA, When the Schools Are Classified as National, Provincial, and District. Chi square tests were conducted on various strategies and their relationship with school category. The study presents the results of school category on preference for school curriculum, guidance and counselling and school community. Results of other significant factors are indicated in appendix 6. The acceptable level of significance for the (χ²) test of independence was 0.05 at one degree of freedom. Levels of significance found to be greater than 0.05 implied that the null hypothesis is rejected; on the contrary, if the level of significance was found to be less than 0.05, then the hypothesis was accepted. Question 6 on the type of school and question 29 on strategies used to curb DSA; of the principals’ questionnaire were used to calculate the correlation. To determine if there is a relationship between school category verses school curriculum a χ2 test was performed and the results are shown in Table 4.36. 166 Table 4.36 Secondary School Curriculum versus School Category National Provincial District School curriculum Pearson chi χ2 Correlation 36.029 -.441* 32.482 -.661* 28.938 -1.000* Sig. (2- tailed) 0.086 0.086 0.086 χ 2 is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).df= 1 Table 4.39 shows χ2 results on the preference by head teachers to use school curriculum as a strategy to curb DSA in different categories of schools. The calculated level of significance for the chi test was 0.086 which is greater than acceptable level of 0.05 hence the null hypothesis Ho2: there is no significant relationship between schools and strategies used by head teachers to curb DSA, when the schools are classified as National, Provincial, and District. The Pearson coefficient of correlation was -0.441 for national, -0.661 for provincial schools while district schools had -1.000. This means that school category was significant in influencing the choice to use school curriculum in curbing DSA. However, district schools had a higher coefficient of correlation at -1.000 implying that school category was very significant in influencing the choice of strategy in district schools than provincial and national schools. This was interpreted to mean 167 that due to high levels of drug abuse experienced in district schools which are majorly day schools; head teachers used every opportunity to discuss DSA with students during lessons. Mutsotso (2004), Muraguri (2004) and Imbunya (2009) concur that various aspects of the school curriculum are used to create DSA awareness and to curb the drug menace. However, the results show that district schools were utilising the strategy more than the provincial and national schools respectively. For schools to reap full benefits from the strategy, they should utilise all opportunities provided in the syllabuses. On the other hand, KIE could enhance content on DSA in the school syllabus and make it examinable to ensure that it is taught in every school. A test of significance was also performed on school category and guidance and counselling. The results are shown in Table 4.37. Table 4.37 Guidance and Counselling versus School Category National Provincial District Guidance and counselling Chi test Pearson Correlation 36.029 -.441* 32.482 -.661* 28.938 -1.000* Sig. (2- tailed) 0.086 0.086 0.086 χ 2 is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).df= 1 168 Table 4.40 shows χ2 results on the choice by head teachers to use guidance and counselling as a strategy to curb DSA in different categories of schools. The level of significance for the chi test was 0.086 which is greater than acceptable level of 0.05 hence the null hypothesis Ho2: there is no significant relationship between schools and strategies used by head teachers to curb DSA, when the schools are classified as National, Provincial, and District is rejected. The Pearson coefficient of correlation was -0.441 for national, -0.661 for provincial schools while district schools had -1.000. This means that school category was significant in influencing the use of guidance and counselling to curb DSA. It was however noted that school category was very significant at -1.000 in district schools. This could be interpreted to mean that district schools have more cases of DSA hence the preference for guidance and counselling. A test of significance was also performed on school category verses school community to determine the level of significance. The results are shown in Table 4.38. Table 4.38 School Community versus Involvement School Category National Provincial District School community chi test Pearson Correlation 36.029 -.441* 32.482 -.661* 28.938 -1.000* Sig. (2- tailed) 0.086 0.086 0.086 169 Table 4.41 shows that the χ2 level of significance was 0.086 which is greater than acceptable level of 0.05 hence the null hypothesis Ho2: There is no significant relationship between schools and strategies used by head teachers to curb DSA, when the schools are classified as National, Provincial, and District is rejected. The results show that school category was significant in influencing the head teachers’ choice to involve school community in curbing DSA in all categories of schools. The results also show that there were varied levels of preference by head teachers to involve members of the school community to curb DSA in different categories of schools. However head teachers in district schools involved the community more than those in provincial and national schools as indicated by a coefficient of correlation of -1.000. This implied that some head teachers preferred to involve parents, BOG, PTA and members of the community since most of the drugs and substances consumed by students were supplied from the community around the school. These findings agree with study by Ngesu et al (2008) who reported that drug abuse problems were beyond the teachers and preferred that they should be dealt with outside the school. KIPPRA (2006) also consented that schools alone cannot solve the drug problem and suggested other stake holders in the society to join in the war against DSA. 4.13 Other Strategies Used by Head Teachers to Curb DSA From literature on drug abuse in schools, head teachers were using other strategies to curb drug abuse. The Head teachers of the sampled schools were 170 given a list of strategies used to curb DSA and asked to rate their effectiveness. The responses are shown in Table 4.39. Table 4.39: Head Teachers Responses on Effectiveness of Other Strategies Used to Curb DSA Statement V er y ef fe ct iv e Ef fe ct iv e Fa irl y ef fe ct iv e Le as t ef fe ct iv e N o t ef fe ct iv e f* % f % f % f % F % Diagonal communication 0 0 10 32.2 12 38.7 9 29.0 0 0 Accommodative management 0 0 10 32.2 21 67.7 0 0 0 0 Punishment 0 0 5 16.1 10 32.2 8 25.8 8 25.8 Exclusion 10 32.2 9 29.0 3 9.7 0 0 9 29.0 Inspection 0 0 5 16.1 11 35.5 10 32.2 5 16.1 School rules 0 0 0 0 31 100 0 0 0 0 *f denotes frequency The responses show that diagonal communication where students discuss issues affecting them and get feedback from school administration was effective in 171 dealing with DSA problems as it returned 32% effective, 39% and 29% fairly effective and least effective respectively. Accommodative management style was also deemed effective as it allows student to freely discuss their problems with the head teacher without victimization. This style is allows students to seek help whenever they feel trapped in Drug and Substance Abuse. Exclusion of students was preferred by 71% of principals possibly to get reed of the problem from the school but not necessarily from the student. The researcher observed that while it was against Government policy to expel students, some school principals still contravened the policy; may be due to ignorance of parents or fear that their children would not be accepted in other schools or the stigma associated with DSA caused them to remain silent. Ngesu (2008) concur that drug abuse problems are beyond the teachers and should be dealt with outside the school. KIPPRA (2006) also consented that schools alone cannot solve the drug problem and suggested other stake holders in the society to join in the war against DSA. Kimori (2010) found that head teachers preferred expelling DSA cases to reduce indiscipline and poor performance. Punishment was effective in dealing with DSA as recorded by 74% of head teachers. This implies most schools punished students found with drugs; these findings agree with Kabiru (2009) where 60% of teachers interviewed named punishment as the most effective method of dealing with drug abuse in schools. However the researcher observed that while this may be the most preferred 172 strategy of dealing with DSA cases, it was difficult to implement as teachers are prohibited by the children’s act (2001) from punishing students. Given the gravity of the DSA problem, managers of schools need to consult with the Ministry of education so as to come up with acceptable punishments that would help curb DSA. 4.14 Students’ Gender versus Their Attitude to Administrative Strategies The study inquired how different genders of students responded to the strategies used by head teachers. A question was posed to Head teachers to indicate how the students’ gender influenced their behaviour change towards DSA. They indicated that male students were more prone to drug abuse and were more resistant to administrative strategies aimed at curbing DSA. Some head teachers indicated that most boys perceived drug abuse and contravening school rules and regulations as being heroic. On the other hand, female students preferred to remain discreet when engaging in drug abuse. The girls had a positive attitude towards guidance and counselling as a strategy to curb DSA but preferred that parents and the rest of the school community should not be made aware of their indulgence in drugs. The students were also asked to indicate their attitude towards strategies used by head teachers to curb DSA in the schools. Their attitude towards strategies was cross tabulated against their gender the results are indicated in Table 4.40. 173 Table 4.40 Cross Tabulation of Gender and Attitude Towards Strategies as reported by students Question Attitude Gender Male Female f % f % Attitude of students towards strategies adopted by head teachers in curbing DSA in schools Positive 69 31.7 147 77.8 Negative 21 9.6 8 4.2 Neutral 128 58.7 34 18.0 Total 218 100% 189 100% The results show that 32% of the male students indicated that their attitude towards strategies adopted by head teachers was positive in comparison to 78% of the girls who indicated they were positive about the strategies. Ten percent of the boys indicated they had a negative attitude towards the strategies while only 4% of the girls shared this sentiment. Fifty nine percent of the boys indicated they were indifferent to the strategies in contrast to 18% of the girls who shared this view. 174 These findings agree with Erambo (2011) who found that the students’ gender influenced the onset of drug abuse and further influenced their response towards intervention programmes with girls being more receptive than boys. 4.15 Challenges Facing School Heads in Curbing DSA The study sought from school principals and teacher counsellors the challenges they faced in curbing DSA among students. The following were some of the challenges raised by majority of school principals and teacher counsellors. Lack of proper training among teachers on ways of handling DSA cases implied that there was limited number of teachers who could competently handle students with DSA problems in most sampled schools. Majority of the head teachers also cited lack of cooperation from other stakeholders such as parents; who at times refused to cooperate and withdrew their children from schools before the counselling process was over. Principals also indicated that some local provincial administrators at times failed to apprehend sellers of chang’aa, muratina, Miraa and bhang operating in communities around the school. Some head teachers cited negative attitude of parents and students towards guidance and counselling as a hindrance to the success of guidance and counselling process as a strategy. The counselling component was made hard by the refusal of students to open up and the state of 175 denial by parents who in turn blamed the drug abuse problem on the head teachers’ laxity and lack of competence in enforcing discipline in the school. The head teachers also indicated that the cost of engaging professionals in drug abuse counselling was prohibitive yet this was a specialised area and training in general counselling skills was insufficient. Inviting guest speakers was also expensive for most schools due to limited funding from the Government. Majority of the head teachers indicated that most of the dugs consumed by students were supplied by the community whom they had no control over. This study noted therefore that external help from the Ministry of Education and the Government was necessary in dealing with the problem. Head teachers also lamented the rapid change in trends in the drug world accompanied by top secrecy in drug trade. This posed a great challenge as the language used by peddlers and users remained strange to the teachers hampering identification of abusers and incapacitating the intervention process. This implies that school principals, teacher counsellors and teachers needed refresher courses from time to time to remain competent and relevant. The Heads of guidance and counselling departments were also asked to indicate the challenges facing guidance and counselling when used as an administrative 176 strategy to curb DSA in schools. They noted that the main problem is the stigma and attitude towards counselling amongst the student community. Majority of them indicated that any student who was sported at the counselling office was treated with suspicion by fellow students and staff. This means that teachers should come up with innovative strategies to eradicate stigma associated with seeking counselling by demystifying the whole process through open discussions, explaining the importance of counselling and also having the sessions in a friendly place. Another challenge was said to be lack of proper training among the guidance and counselling teachers and workload assigned to them in other subjects. This leaves limited time usually after lessons, in the evenings or early in the morning. Day schools have even more limited time as teachers and students reside outside the schools. The head teachers also stated that some of the drug abuse problems were beyond principals and teacher counsellors’ competence. This calls for a comprehensive ministerial policy to specifically deal with drug abuse problems in schools. 177 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Introduction This chapter presents the summary of the research findings, conclusions derived from the study findings and the recommendations for policy and practice. The chapter also presents suggestions for further research. 5.2 Summary of the Study The purpose of the study was to investigate administrative strategies adopted by head teachers in curbing drug and substances abuse in public secondary schools in Nairobi County of Kenya. Five research objectives guided the study. Research objective one sought to assess the extent to which the head teachers use the school curriculum to create DSA awareness among students of public secondary school in Nairobi. Objective two was to determine whether the head teachers use guidance and counselling sessions to curb DSA among students in public secondary schools. Objective three went further to establish whether the head teacher involves the community around the school in curbing DSA among students in public secondary school in Nairobi County, while objective four established whether the head teachers’ strategies in curbing DSA among students are influenced by the school category. Finally, objective five was to determine whether the head teachers’ strategies in curbing DSA are influenced by their 178 individual characteristics of age, gender, qualifications and experience. The study employed descriptive survey design. The target population of the study was 68 secondary schools in Nairobi County, 68 Principals, 68 heads of Guidance and Counselling Departments and, 30745 students. The schools surveyed were selected using stratified sampling followed by simple random sampling method. The head teachers and the HODs Guidance and counselling were selected using purposive sampling while the students were selected using simple random sampling. The sample consisted of 35 head teachers, 35 heads of guidance and counselling departments and 420 students. Data was collected by use of questionnaires that comprised open ended questions and closed ended questions. Interviews were also conducted with heads of guidance and counselling. Content validity of the research instruments was ascertained by a team of experts in Educational Administration and through piloting of the test items. Reliability of the instruments was ascertained by a test-re- test technique and a coefficient of stability for head teachers’ questionnaire found to be 0.91, while that of students was 0.84 coefficient of stability. Permission to collect data in Nairobi County was granted by the National Council of Science and Technology. A letter of introduction was given in every school visited before data was collected. Data was collected, analysed and presented as per study objectives. 179 5.3 Findings of the Study The findings of the study were that head teachers used varied strategies to curb Drug and Substance Abuse in schools. Guidance and Counselling emerged as the most used strategy followed by school curriculum and use of guest speakers. Other strategies indicated by students were use of assembly meetings; random inspection of students belongings, expelling notorious cases and public awareness using posters. On strategies preferred by students, counselling emerged as the most preferred strategy followed by a combination of guidance and counselling, involving parents/guardians and diagonal communication between head teachers and students. Other strategies suggested were that head teachers should formulate and enforce strict school rules which deter students from using drugs. Students also suggested that teachers should carry out random inspections of students’ belongings and expel notorious cases. However, the study found that expulsion and heavy punishment can only be sanctioned by the Board of Governors with permission from the Ministry of Education. And that heavy punishment is against the provisions of the Children’s Act, (2001). Both formal and informal school curriculum is used to curb DSA and that content on DSA is contained in the life skills syllabus from form one to form four. However no proper emphasis is given to this topic as it is mentioned as a part of the syllabus sub- topics. In form 1 and 2, it is mentioned as one of the causes of law self esteem. In form 3 it is taught as one of the causes of anxiety. While in 180 form 4, it appears as one of the causes of violence. The findings also showed that life skills lessons are not taught in many schools (45%) because the subject is not examinable and that some schools do not have the life skills syllabus. Co- curricula activities (sports music and drama) were also used to curb DSA and were found to be more effective than classroom lessons. The researcher observed that the non- formal setting of co-curricular activities encouraged sharing of information on DSA more freely amongst students making it more effective in curbing DSA. Guidance and counselling sessions were offered in most schools and most schools had G/C department. However the sessions were used to discuss subjects affecting the life of a growing individual such as; HIV/ AIDS, handling peer pressure, school life relations, DSA, stress management, environmental education and others; and as such, no specific time was allocated to DSA counselling in the school routine. Findings from the study further show that majority of the head teachers conducted Drug and Substance Abuse counselling only when need arose in the school and only 10% were able to conduct it per term. The study also gathered that majority of the head teachers and teacher counsellors lacked the specialised skills in drug abuse counselling. In most schools, G/C teachers also doubled as class room teachers with daily work load hence did not have enough time to counsel students. Some schools lacked secluded rooms for counselling while some head teachers and teacher counsellors feared tackling drug related 181 issues due to their sensitivity and risks involved. The benefits of this strategy had not been fully utilised in addressing drug related and other problems affecting learners. On overall, guidance and counselling was the most preferred strategy by both students (92%) and head teachers (80%). On school community relations, the study found that students obtain drug supplies from the community around the school as indicated by a mean score of 4.58 in Table 4.34 and that the local community knows the peddlers and students who abuse drugs and substances. The study also found that poor parenting was responsible for DSA cases in schools while the PTA and BOG in some schools were not involved in tackling DSA problems. Head teachers further indicated that the local community was rarely involved in tackling DSA problems in the school as indicated by a mean score of 2.32. In order to get the community involved, there is need to create a forum where members of the community could be educated on DSA, types, causes and effects to the individual and society. This could improve sharing of information between members of the school community and school administration. From the study findings, the drug abuse problem is tied to other social problems and evils in society that heads of schools cannot solve the problem without collaborating with parents, law enforcers, Government agencies, NGOs and FBOs to fight drug abuse from the supply and demand side. The study found that this strategy was not effective. 182 School rules were also used to curb DSA and all schools visited had a set of rules that outlawed being in possession or abusing drugs and substances. All the head teachers rated school rules as being fairly effective in curbing DSA as most of the rules meant to curb DSA; like punishment and expulsion could not be enforced by the head teacher since they contravene Government policy on education and the children’s Act, (2001). The study further found that the age and gender of head teachers influenced their choice of strategies in curbing Drug and Substance Abuse. Majority of the G/C teachers indicated that male, older head teachers (45 year and above) took a casual approach with regard to dealing with drugs and substance abuse among their students. Having expelled and dealt with many discipline cases, they rarely gave a personal touch to the handling of DSA cases. This group of administrators were said to adopt the iron hand tactics in dealing with the DSA problem. The study found that such head teachers recommend for expulsion or suspension of students found in possession of drugs. The study also showed that gender of the head teacher was very significant in influencing the use of G/C as a strategy for curbing DSA as indicated by a correlation coefficient of -1.000. However the head teacher’s gender was not significant in influencing the use of school curriculum in curbing DSA as 183 indicated by a Pearson correlation of -0.103. Descriptive data showed that female and older administrators were compassionate to students with drug abuse problems. They preferred soft approaches like counselling and guidance before the hard approach of expulsion and suspension. The study found that the academic qualification and teaching experience of the head teacher were significant in influencing their choice of strategies in curbing DSA. Long term experience and higher academic qualifications enhanced their proficiency and operational skills that were useful in problem solving. Academic qualification of the head teacher was very significant in influencing the head teachers’ choice to engage the school community in dealing with drug abuse problems. It posted a correlation coefficient of -1.000. School category was significant in influencing the choice of strategies used by head teachers. However, district schools had a higher coefficient of correlation at -1.000 implying that school category was very significant in influencing the choice of strategy in district schools than provincial and national schools. This could be due to high levels of drug abuse experienced in district schools which are majorly day schools hence head teachers used every opportunity to discuss DSA with students during lessons. 184 5.4 Conclusions The study concludes that indeed the problem of Drug and Substance Abuse exist and that head teachers use various strategies to curb the problem. Notably, the study concludes that no one strategy can successfully curb drug abuse in secondary schools. Head teachers should use combination of strategies to curb different drug abuse situations. Secondary School Curriculum: Content on Drug and Substance Abuse in the secondary school curriculum was found to be inadequate and could not equip learners with sufficient skills and knowledge that could help them resist drug and substances Abuse. Hence the strategy is not effective. Guidance and Counselling: Majority of the head teachers and teacher counsellors lacked specialised skills in Drug and Substance Abuse counselling. In most schools, G/C teachers also doubled as class room teachers with daily work load hence did not have enough time to counsel students. Some schools lacked secluded rooms for counselling while some head teachers and teacher counsellors feared tackling drug related issues due to their sensitivity and risks involved. Therefore the benefits of the strategy have not been fully harnessed hence, the strategy is not effective School Community Involvement: Head teachers involved members of the school community in dealing with drug abuse problems but; lack of cooperation 185 especially from parents frustrated the head teachers’ strategies to curb DSA. Some members of the community protected drug dealers and sometimes sold drugs to students. From the study findings, the drug abuse problem is tied to other social problems and evils in society that the head teachers abilities. Hence school community as a strategy used to curb DSA is not effective. School rules meant to curb DSA; like punishment and expulsion could not be enforced by the head teacher since they contravene Government policy on education and the children’s Act, (2001) hence the strategy is not effective. Head Teachers Age: The study further concludes that the age of the head teacher is significant in influencing the choice of strategy used to curb DSA. Younger head teachers feared tackling DSA problems, middle age between 35- 47 years had a positive attitude and used more friendly strategies like guidance and counselling and co-curricular activities in curbing DSA, while the older principals preferred autocratic methods of punishment and expulsion. Head Teachers Gender: The gender of the head teacher also influences the strategies used with female head teachers being accommodative to student abusers while the male prefer to exclude them from school. However gender of the head teacher was very significant in influencing the use of G/C as a strategy for curbing 186 but was not significant in influencing the use of school curriculum in curbing DSA. Head Teachers Academic Qualification and Experience: The study also concludes that head teacher’s academic qualification and experience were significant in influencing their choice of strategies in curbing DSA. More qualified and experienced teachers were able to identify drug abusers and apply the most appropriate strategy to curb the problem. Notably, academic qualification of the head teacher was very significant in influencing the head teachers’ choice to engage the school community in dealing with drug abuse problems. School Category: The study further concludes that school category was significant in influencing the choice of strategies used by head teachers since the school category determined the entry behaviour of learners into different schools. However, school category was very significant in influencing the choice of strategy used in district schools than provincial and national schools. Finally, although head teachers are using different strategies to curb DSA, there are internal and external factors that hinder the effectiveness of some strategies while in some cases fuelling the Drug and Substance Abuse. It is important that these factors are addressed by relevant authorities for head teachers’ strategies to succeed. Most schools visited indicated financial constraints as a major hindrance 187 to implementation of drug abuse prevention and mitigation programmes. Lack of clear policy from the Ministry of Education, on how schools should deal with student addicts continue to be a major challenge to head teachers’ efforts in tackling the problem. However the school remains the most appropriate place to intensify war on Drug and Substance Abuse since combination strategies can be applied purposively by different stakeholders to different Drug and Substance Abusing students. 5.5 Recommendations Based on the findings, the study makes the following recommendations; 1. The Ministry of Education could organise conferences where school administrators and Guidance and Counselling teachers can share their experiences on handling DSA cases. Such conference could develop best practices and standards which school administrators can incorporate in their strategies to curb Drug and Substance Abuse in schools. 2. The Teachers’ Service Commission should identify and deploy Guidance and Counselling teachers to schools based on student population to enhance counselling services to students. This would mitigate against DSA. They should also enforce disciplinary action on teachers found drunk or smoke while on duty. 188 3. Teachers Training Colleges, Universities, Kenya Education Management Institute previously (KESI) and Kenya School of Government previously (KIA) need to equip all school administrators and teachers with knowledge skills and attitudes that enable them deal with Drug and Substance Abuse cases in schools. 4. The study recommends that Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD) should beef up content on DSA in the secondary school curriculum so that it can adequately be used to curb DSA. They should provide additional time in the syllabus for teachers to teach DSA separately in addition to that infused in other subjects. 5. Head teachers should: a) Establish drug abuse prevention programmes and all members of staff should be committed to the success of the programme together with the administration. Emphasis should be on inclusion of all concerned parties in planning and implementation of all prevention programmes. b) Ensure that school programmes on sensitization, prevention and intervention are on-going, from Form 1 to Form 4 for students, and should involve the teachers. This is because most of the programmes like in-service for guidance and counselling teachers as well as peer counsellors are short-term and inconsistent. Although short-term programmes may produce results; such results may be short-lived. 189 c) Relieve Guidance and counselling teachers of other teaching duties in so that they concentrate on counselling students. They should regularly undergo in- servicing and attend seminars on DSA in order to be updated on current trends in the drug world. d) Provide secluded and conducive rooms for counselling to be effective. 6. Parents need to participate in the fight against DSA in schools instead of denial or negative attitude towards the administrators. They need to internalise the fact that school administrators mean well for their children, and that specific interventions meant to curb DSA among the students can only succeed with their support. 7. There is need for community to cooperate and work together with schools by inviting respected community leaders as guest speakers to talk to students in the school and to ensure reduction in drug supply. 8. The Government should: a) Use agencies like NACADA, NGOs, and FBOs to liaise with schools in the fight against DSA by giving talks, support rehabilitation programmes, and distribute materials posters and pamphlets that educate youth on dangers of Drug and Substance Abuse. 190 b) Address the culture of impunity where students associated with drug barons threaten school administrators. c) Support the judicial system to aggressively deal with the runaway problem of drugs in Kenya by apprehending dealers and slapping stiff penalties to them. d) Address the security of teachers and head teachers who are threatened by the drug dealers and cartels that use students to supply drugs to schools. 9. The print and electronic media also needs to be actively involved in the fight against DSA. Some television stations, newspapers and magazines tend to portray drug abusers as successful, great and powerful. 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Massachusetts, Simon and Schuster Company. 200 APPENDICES APPENDIX 1 LETTER OF INTRODUCTION University of Nairobi Department of Educational Administration and Planning P.O Box 30197 Nairobi. The Principal ...................School Dear Sir / Madam, RE: PERMISSION TO COLLECT DATA FROM YOUR SCHOOL I am a postgraduate student undertaking a Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Educational administration at the University of Nairobi. I am currently conducting a research on Effectiveness of the head teachers’ strategies used to curb drug and substance abuse in public secondary schools in Nairobi County Kenya. Your school has been selected to participate in the study. My respondents will be 201 sampled from all the classes in your school, guiding and counselling masters and the school Principal. Kindly allow me to collect data through questionnaires. The data collected will be strictly used for academic purposes only and the identity of respondents will remain confidential. Thank you for your assistance. Yours faithfully, Selpher Cheloti APPENDIX 2 PRINCIPALS’ QUESTIONNAIRE This questionnaire is designed to gather general information on Effectiveness of the head teachers’ strategies used to curb drug and substance abuse in public secondary schools in Nairobi County Kenya. Any information you give will be used for purposes of this research only. Please do not write your name or the name of your school anywhere on this questionnaire. Please tick the appropriate answer in the bracket [ ] provided and fill in the spaces provided for questions requiring your opinion. Section A: General Information 1. Please indicate your gender? Male [ ] Female [ ] 2. What is your age bracket? 18-24 [ ] 25-34 [ ] 35- 44 [ ] 45-54 [ ] over 55 [ ] 3. How long have you served in your present station as a head teacher? Less than 5 years [ ] 5-10 years [ ] 11-20 years [ ] over 20 years [ ] 4. Please indicate your highest academic qualifications 202 S1 [ ] BED [ ] BSc [ ] BA [ ] MED [ ] MSc [ ] PHD [ ] any other_____________________________________________________________ 5.What is your school category? Boys boarding [ ] Boys day [ ] Girls boarding [ ] Girls day [ ] Mixed boarding [ ] Mixed day [ ] 6. Please indicate the type of your school? National [ ] provincial [ ] district [ ] any other, _________________________________________________________ Section B: Strategies used to curb Drug Abuse in Secondary Schools (i). Secondary School Curriculum in curbing DSA 7. The following statements relate to aspects of the school curriculum used to curb DSA in secondary schools. Use the following key to rate how effectively they are used to curb DSA. 1. Strongly disagree 2. Disagree 3. Neutral 4. Agree 5. Strongly agree (a) The school curriculum addresses DSA among students 1 2 3 4 5 (b) DSA and other social problems are included in the school time table 1 2 3 4 5 (c) Teachers are competent in handling DSA among students in class 1 2 3 4 5 (d) Sports are used in curbing DSA in secondary schools 1 2 3 4 5 (e) Drama is used in curbing DSA in secondary schools 1 2 3 4 5 (f) Music is used in curbing DSA in secondary schools 1 2 3 4 5 (g) DSA is tackled during student barazas 1 2 3 4 5 (h) School rules are used to control DSA among students 1 2 3 4 5 8. How effective are the following curriculum areas in creating Drug and Substance Abuse awareness? 203 (a) Class room lessons____________________________________________ (b) Co-curricular activities_________________________________________ (c) School rules _________________________________________________ (ii) Guidance and Counselling as a strategy in curbing DSA 9. Are you directly involved in counselling drug and substances abuse cases in your school? Yes [ ] No [ ] If yes, what is your role? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 10. How many drug related cases did you handle in the past one term? Less than 5 [ ] 5-10 [ ] 11-20 [ ] Over 20 [ ] 11. How often do you have drug abuse counselling in your school? Weekly [ ] monthly [ ] termly [ ] as need arises [ ] 12. How often do you invite experts to talk to students about Drug and Substance Abuse? Very often [ ] often [ ] neutral [ ] rarely [ ] never [ ] 13. How effective is guidance and counselling as a strategy for curbing DSA in schools? Very effective [ ] effective [ ] fairly effective [ ] Least effective [ ] Not effective [ ] 204 14. Please list some of the challenges faced by guidance and counselling teachers in curbing Drug and Substance Abuse among students? _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ (iii). School Community Involvement in curbing DSA 15. In your opinion, does the community around the school contribute to increase in DSA by students of this school? Yes [ ] No [ ] (b) If yes, briefly explain how _________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ 16. The following statements relate to community participation in curbing DSA in secondary schools. Use the following key to indicate the extent to which you agree with the statement. 1. Strongly disagree 2. Disagree 3. Neutral 4. Agree 5. Strongly agree (a)Students obtain drug supplies from the community around the school 1 2 3 4 5 (b)The local community know drug abusing students 1 2 3 4 5 (c)Drug peddlers are known by local community 1 2 3 4 5 (d)Poor parenting contributes to DSA in schools 1 2 3 4 5 (f) PTA and BOG are involved in tackling DSA problems in the school 1 2 3 4 5 (g)Local community is involved in tackling DSA problems in the school 1 2 3 4 5 205 17. How can the community assist the head teacher in minimizing DSA among students? __________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ 18. What role do parents play in curbing drug abuse in secondary schools? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 19. How can head teachers use the BOG and PTA in curbing DSA among students? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 20. How can the community participate in curbing DSA among students? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 21. What challenges do head teachers encounter in fighting the problem of drug abuse among students? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 22. Please suggest possible ways of addressing these challenges. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 206 Section C: Effects of Drug and Substance Abuse on School Administration 23. How would you rate the drug abuse problem in your school? Serious [ ] Not serious [ ] Prefer not to say [ ] none existence [ ] 24. Please name the drugs that are commonly abused by students in your school? __________________________________________________________________ 25. How has the school category influenced the level of DSA among students? __________________________________________________________________ 26. In your opinion, what are the main causes of drug abuse among students in Nairobi? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 27. How do you identify students who have abused drugs? Drop in academic performance yes [ ] no [ ] Absenteeism yes [ ] no [ ] Violence yes [ ] no [ ] Red eyes yes [ ] no [ ] Slurred and heavy speech yes [ ] no [ ] Any other _____________________________________________________________ 28. The following are some strategies that head teachers could use in curbing DSA in secondary schools. Use the following key to indicate their level of effectiveness. 207 1. Not effective 2. Least effective 3. Fairly effective 4. Effective 5. Very effective Punishment 1 2 3 4 5 Exclusion from school 1 2 3 4 5 School curriculum 1 2 3 4 5 Co-curriculum activities 1 2 3 4 5 Guidance and counselling 1 2 3 4 5 Peer counselling 1 2 3 4 5 Inspecting students belongings regularly 1 2 3 4 5 Community involvement 1 2 3 4 5 School rules 1 2 3 4 5 Diagonal communication 1 2 3 4 5 Accommodative management style 1 2 3 4 5 30. Briefly explain how the following head teachers’ personal characteristics may influence their strategy in curbing DSA among students. a. Head teachers’ age________________________________________________ b. Head teachers’ gender______________________________________________ c. Head teachers’ qualifications________________________________________ d. Head teachers’ experience__________________________________________ 208 31. How would you rate your knowledge and ability in tackling DSA problems in the school? Excellent [ ] good [ ] fair [ ] poor [ ] 32. How does the students’ gender affect their behaviour change towards DSA? 33. How has DSA among students affected the discipline of students in your school? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 34. How has DSA among students affected the performance of students in your school? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 35. How has DSA among students affected the well being of students in your school? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 36. How do you rate students’ attitude towards strategies used by head teachers to curb DSA in relation to their gender? 37. Please suggest some strategies you would recommend for curbing DSA among student? ___________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ Thank you very much for taking your time to fill this questionnaire. 209 APPENDIX 3 STUDENTS’ QUESTIONNAIRE This questionnaire is designed to gather general information on Effectiveness of the head teachers’ strategies used to curb drug and substance abuse in public secondary schools in Nairobi County Kenya. Any information you give will be used for purposes of this research only. Please do not write your name or the name of your school anywhere on this questionnaire. Please tick the appropriate answer in the bracket [ ] provided and fill in the spaces provided for questions requiring your opinion. Section A: General Information 1. What is your gender? Male [ ] Female [ ] 2. What is your age? 13-14 years [ ] 15-16 years [ ] 17-18 years [ ] Over 18years [ ] 3. Please indicate your class; form 1 [ ] form 2 [ ] form 3 [ ] form 4 [ ] Section B: Strategies used to curb Drug Abuse in Secondary Schools (i).Secondary School Curriculum as a strategy in curbing DSA 4. The following statements relate to aspects of the school curriculum used to curb DSA among students. Use the following key to rate how effectively they are used to curb DSA. 1. Strongly disagree 2. Disagree 3. Neutral 4. Agree 5. Strongly agree 210 (a) The school curriculum helps to curb DSA among students 1 2 3 4 5 (b) DSA and other social problems are included in the school time table 1 2 3 4 5 (c) Teachers are competent in handling DSA among students in class 1 2 3 4 5 (d) Sports are used in curbing DSA in secondary schools 1 2 3 4 5 (e) Drama is used in curbing DSA in secondary schools 1 2 3 4 5 (f) Music is used in curbing DSA in secondary schools 1 2 3 4 5 (g) DSA is tackled during students’ barazas 1 2 3 4 5 (h) School rules are used to control DSA among students 1 2 3 4 5 5. Is life skills taught in your school? Yes [ ] No [ ] if yes, how many lessons per week? ______________________________________ 6. How effective is the school curriculum in controlling DSA among students? Very effective [ ] Effective [ ] fairly effective [ ] Least effective [ ] Not effective [ ] (ii).Guidance and Counselling as a strategy in curbing DSA 7. Do you attend guidance and counselling sessions? Yes [ ] No [ ] If yes, which topics are covered?____________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 8. How often do you have drug abuse counselling sessions in your school? Weekly [ ] monthly [ ] termly [ ] as need arises [ ] 9. How effective is peer counselling in rehabilitating drug abusing students? 211 Very effective [ ] effective [ ] I don’t know [ ] not effective [ ] 10. How does students’ gender influence their behavioural change on DSA? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 11. How often does the principal invite experts to talk to you on DSA? Very often [ ] often [ ] neutral [ ] rarely [ ] never [ ] (iii).School Community Involvement in curbing DSA 12. In your opinion, does the community around the school contribute to increase in DSA among students of your school? Yes [ ] No [ ] If yes, briefly explain how_________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 13. The following statements relate to community participation in curbing DSA in secondary schools. Use the following key to indicate the extent to which you agree with the statement. 1. Strongly disagree 2. Disagree 3. Neutral 4. Agree 5. Strongly agree (a) Students obtain drug supplies from the community around the school 1 2 3 4 5 (b)The local community know drug abusing students 1 2 3 4 5 (c)Drug peddlers are known by local community 1 2 3 4 5 (d)Poor parenting contributes to DSA in schools 1 2 3 4 5 (f) PTA and BOG are involved in tackling DSA problems in the school 1 2 3 4 5 (g)Local community is involved in tackling DSA problems in the school 1 2 3 4 5 212 14. How can the community assist the head teacher in minimizing DSA among students? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 15. What role can the parents play in curbing drug abuse in secondary schools? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 16. How can the head teacher use the BOG and PTA to curb DSA among students? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 17. What challenges do head teachers encounter in fighting the drug abuse problem in schools? ______________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ 18. Please suggest possible ways of addressing these challenges. __________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Section C: Effects of Drug and Substance Abuse on School Administration 19. How would you rate the drug abuse problem in your school? Serious [ ] Not serious [ ] Prefer not to say [ ] 20. Please name the drugs that are commonly abused by students in your school? __________________________________________________________________ 213 21. What factors influence drug abuse among students in Nairobi county? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 22. Have you ever abused drugs? Yes [ ] No [ ] If yes, what made you start using drugs? ______________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 23. In your opinion, what should the head teacher do to students who abuse drugs? __________________________________________________________ 24. Please name the strategies the head teacher uses to minimize DSA in the school?___________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 25. How has DSA among students affected the discipline of students in this school?___________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 26. How has DSA among students affected the performance of students in this school?___________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 27. How has DSA among students affected the health of students in this school? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ 214 28. What is your attitude towards the strategies adopted by the head teacher in curbing DSA in the school? Positive [ ] negative [ ] neutral [ ] Thank you very much for taking your time to fill this questionnaire. 215 APPENDIX 4 INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR HEADS OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING DEPARTMENTS 1. How long have served as head of guidance and counselling department? 2. How would you describe the drug abuse situation in your school? 3. Which drugs are commonly abused by students? 4. What are the causes of drug abuse among students in your school? 5. How does the school category influence the level of DSA among students? 6. Briefly explain how the following head teachers’ personal characteristics may influence their strategy in curbing DSA among students. a. Head teachers’ age b. Head teachers’ gender c. Head teachers’ qualifications d. Head teachers’ experience 7. How effective are school rules in controlling DSA among students? 8. How does the school curriculum address DSA among students? 9. How much time is allocated to DSA issues in the school time table? 10. How competent are teachers in handling DSA problems among students? 11. How has the school utilized sports, drama and, music in creating DSA awareness? 12. How often do you have drug abuse counselling sessions in your school? 13. How effective is DSA guidance and counselling on behavioural change among male and female students? 14. How often does the principal invite experts to talk to students about DSA? 15. How can the local community be involved in tackling DSA in the school? 16. How can the head teacher use PTA and BOG tackling DSA problems in the school? 17. Of all the strategies used by the head teacher in curbing DSA, which is the most effective? Please explain briefly. 18. What are the challenges encountered by head teachers in curbing DSA among students? 216 19. Please suggest possible ways of addressing the drug abuse problems in schools. Thank you very much for taking your time to respond to these questions 217 APPENDIX 5 LIST OF PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN NAIROBI COUNTY Dagoreti District 1. Dagoretti High 2. Dagoretti Mixed 3. Lenana School 4. Mutuini Secondary 5. Nembu Girls 6. Rithimitu Girls 7. Ruthimitu mixed 8. Precious Blood 9. Moi Nairobi Girls 10. Upper Hill School Embakasi District 11. Dandora Secondary 12. Dr. Mwenje Secondary 13. Embakasi Girls Secondary 14. Kayole Secondary 15. Kayole South (Bondeni Primary) 16. Peter Kibukosya 17. Embakasi Garrison Secondary Kamukunji District 18. Kamukunji Secondary 19. Our lady of Mercy Shauri Moyo 20. Eastleigh High 21. Maina Wanjigi Secondary 22. Moi Forces Academy 23. Uhuru Secondary Kasarani District 24. Baba Dogo Secondary 25. Kahawa Garrison Secondary 26. Kamiti Secondary 27. Ruaraka Secondary 28. Our Lady of Fatima Secondary 29. Ndururuno Secondary 30. Starehe Girls Langata District 31. Karen ‘C’ Secondary 32. Olympic Secondary 33. Lang’ata High 34. Lang’ata Barracks Makadara District 35. Aquinas High School 36. Buruburu Girls 37. Huruma Girls 38. Nile Road Secondary 39. Makongeni Secondary 40. Ofafa Jericho Secondary 41. Highway Secondary 42. Our lady of mercy south B 218 Njiru District 43. Muhuri Muchiri Secondary 44. Drumvale Secondary 45. Jehovah Jireh 46. Ushirika Secondary 47. Ruai Girls Secondary Starehe District 48. Starehe Boys Centre 49. Pumwani Boys Secondary 50. Pumwani Girls Secondary 51. St. Teresa Boys Secondary 52. St. Teresa Girls Secondary 53. Ngara Girls Secondary 54. Parklands Boys Secondary 55. Pangani Girls Secondary 56. Murang’a Road Secondary 57. C.H.H.U Secondary 58. Ndururuno Secondary 59. Jamuhuri high school Westlands District 60 Hospital Hill Secondary 61 Highridge Secondary 62 Parklands Arya Girls 63 Nairobi School 64 Kenya High, 65 State House Girls 66 St. George’s Girls 67 Nairobi Milimani Secondary 68 Kangemi Secondary Source: Ministry of Education (April 2010) 221 APPENDIX 6 PEARSON CORRELATION TABLES Ho1 There is no Significant Relationship Between Head Teachers Strategies in Curbing DSA and Head Teachers Characteristics of Age, Experience Qualifications and Gender. Correlations Q1, Q2 Q3 and Q4 With 29 Strategy for curbing DSA Age Head teachers’ experience academic qualifications Gender Exclusion from school Pearson Correlation -.661 -.661 -1.000 .313 Sig. (2- tailed) .000 .000 .000 .086 N 31 31 31 31 Class room lessons Pearson Correlation -.625 -.625 -.598 -.103 Sig. (2- tailed) .000 .000 .000 .581 N 31 31 31 31 Co-curriculum activities Pearson Correlation -.668 -.668 -.441 -.338 Sig. (2- tailed) .000 .000 .013 .063 N 31 31 31 31 Guidance and counselling Pearson Correlation .506** .506 -.313 1.000 Sig. (2- tailed) .004 .004 .086 .000 N 31 31 31 31 222 Peer counselling Pearson Correlation -.668 -.668 -.441 -.338 Sig. (2- tailed) .000 .000 .013 .063 N 31 31 31 31 Inspecting students belongings regularly Pearson Correlation . a . a . a . a Sig. (2- tailed) . . . . N 31 31 31 31 Parental involvement Pearson Correlation -.661 -.661 -1.000 .313 Sig. (2- tailed) .000 .000 .000 .086 N 31 31 31 31 School rules Pearson Correlation Sig. (2- tailed) . . . . N 31 31 31 31 *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). Ho2: There is no Significant Relationship between Schools and Strategies Used by Head Teachers to Curb DSA, When the Schools Are Classified as National, Provincial, and District. Correlations Q6 with Q29 Principals’ Questionnaire Strategy for curbing DSA National schools Provincial schools District schools Exclusion from school Pearson Correlation -.661 -.661 -1.000 223 Sig. (2- tailed) .000 .000 .000 N 31 31 31 Class room lessons Pearson Correlation -.441 -.661 -1.000 Sig. (2- tailed) .000 .000 .000 N 31 31 31 Co-curriculum activities Pearson Correlation -.668 -.668 -.441 Sig. (2- tailed) .000 .000 .013 N 31 31 31 Guidance and counselling Pearson Correlation -.441 -.661 -1.000 Sig. (2- tailed) .086 .086 .086 N 31 31 31 Peer counselling Pearson Correlation -.546 -.671 -.441 Sig. (2- tailed) .051 .045 .013 N 31 31 31 Inspecting students belongings regularly Pearson Correlation -.334 -.446 -.678 Sig. (2- tailed) . . . N 31 31 31 Parental involvement Pearson Correlation -.441 -.661 -1.000 Sig. (2- tailed) .086 .086 .086 N 31 31 31 School rules Pearson Correlation -.542 -.616 -.312 Sig. (2- tailed) . . . N 31 31 31 224 225