Analysis of Clean Energy Technologies’ Effects on Energy Poverty: Household Air Pollution and Human Health in Vihiga County, Kenya

Abstract

Limited access to modern energy is a significant challenge in developing countries, substantially impacting the environment, economy, and human health. Although significant advantages are expected from the ongoing efforts to ensure universal access to clean energy, research on household energy characteristics and associated risks is very limited. This study analysed the effects of clean energy technologies on energy poverty: household air pollution (HAP) and human health in Vihiga County. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory was applied. Specifically, the study sought to (i) evaluate factors affecting household decisions towards clean energy technologies, (ii) quantify household air pollution from cooking fuels and technologies and model its impacts on human health, and (iii) determine the effects of energy poverty on human health. To achieve the stated objectives, the study adopted a quantitative experimental design. A household survey of 487 households was conducted. The methods used include the probit model, multidimensional energy poverty framework, inverse propensity score weighting (IPSW), and marginal structural models. Particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5, and PM10), Carbon monoxide (CO), and total volatile organic compounds (TVOCs) were used as HAP indicators. Particulate matter, CO, and TVOCs in 42 randomly selected households were monitored using the Multifunctional Air Quality Detector EGVOC-180 and Carbon Monoxide Meter. The AirQ+ v 2.1 model was used to simulate the health impact. The probability that a household will use clean cooking fuels and technologies increased with increase in income, access to credit, male as household head, higher education attainment, and increase in age. Marital status (married) and number of rooms also enhanced the probability of using clean fuels for lighting, while unemployment suppressed the probability of using clean fuels and technologies for cooking and lighting. Kitchen PM1, PM2.5, PM10, and CO concentrations were observed to be higher for biomass cookstoves (three stone cookstove,improved cookstove (chepkube), ceramic jiko, and sawdust jiko) than for non-biomass cookstoves (kerosene stove, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and electric cooker). The maximum average PM2.5 concentrations for the cookstoves were three stone (481.2 μg/m3 ±119.9 μg/m3), improved cookstove (chepkube) (304.3 μg/m3 ±82.7 μg/m3), ceramic jiko (162.4 μg/m3 ±40.3 μg/m3), sawdust jiko (273.1 μg/m3 ±84.9 μg/m3), kerosene stove (80.2 μg/m3 ±14.3 μg/m3), LPG (36.3 μg/m3 ±6.5 μg/m3), and electric cooker (29.5 μg/m3 ±5.6 μg/m3). The AirQ+ model results showed that approximately 484 (85.4%) annual mortality cases due to acute lower respiratory infection, Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, ischemic heart disease, and lung cancer could be averted if households switch from biomass cookstoves (three stone) to clean cooking technologies (LPG and electricity). The multidimensional energy poverty index ranged between 0.580 and 0.726. Most (90.9%) households were classified in the multidimensional energy poverty bracket. A strong, statistically significant impact of energy poverty on health was confirmed. Causal relative risk and causal risk differences of 1.883 and 1.403, respectively, were obtained between energy poverty and health, implying that energy poverty is also a precursor to poor health. This study concludes that socio-economic and demographic factors affect household decisions on cooking and lighting fuels and technologies. Exposure to HAP among rural households in Vihiga county is a significant cause of cardiovascular, pulmonary, and respiratory diseases. Energy poverty also negatively impacts human health, especially poor respiratory health, e.g., cough, wheezing, and nasal irritation. The adverse effects of the energy-HAP-health nexus can be eased by (a) encouraging the use of solid fuels in a way that is more sustainable, efficient, and less polluting, and (b) facilitating the transition to modern, clean, and environmentally friendly cooking fuels and technologies.