Evaluation of the efficiency of Water Supply and Distribution Systems in Kakuma Refugee Camp.

Abstract

Kakuma refugee camp was set up in 1992 to host the lost boys of South Sudan who fled war, and initially intended to host 100,000 refuges but over the years, the camp has grown to accommodate 192,167 refugees from over 20 nationalities. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) together with other stakeholders established mechanisms to ensure effective use of the water resources. Studies indicating an average supply of 17 l/p/d for the entire camp, lower than the recommended minimum quantities of 20 l/p/d. It is against this background that the study sought to evaluate the efficiency of the water supply and distribution system in the Camp. The research prioritised the following specific objectives: Production characterisation of the boreholes, determination of water losses, analysis of water at source, water transmitted to reservoirs, water distributed to tapping points and water available at household level and use of Internet of Things (IoT) in monitoring. To achieve this, the study was guided by technology acceptance theory. The study adopted a mix of quasi-experimental and descriptive survey designs where the experimental survey design sought to use smart devices for real time monitoring of the water supply and distribution system. On the other hand, descriptive research design was essential for collection of descriptive data and relate the same with the research themes. Through the study, seven boreholes were mapped along Tarach River serving Kakuma 2, 3 and 4. A household survey to determine the water access levels at household level was done. The production characterisation of boreholes provided their current status. Computation of losses arising from water transmission from boreholes to water storage reservoirs made it possible to determine the frictional head losses that was used to determine the expected flow at the inlet of water storage reservoirs. From the analysis, the losses ranged from 1.25% to 43.55% with an average of 14.82%. Through real time monitoring by use of ultrasonic water level sensors, the actual water flow into the water reservoirs was determined. This flow was compared with the expected flow at the reservoir inlet. The difference ranged from 1.2% to 53.5% with an average of 23.6% for the various reservoirs/tanks. The disparity between the expected flow and actual flow at reservoir inlet was 8.78% (23.6%-14.82%). This is the unaccounted-for water. The difference between water produced at the borehole using the NRC (Norwegian Refugee Council) borehole logs with the real time monitoring data for the months of January to May 2020 ranged from 2.9% to 59.4% with an average of 38.6%. The NRC puts this figure at 35%. Losses in the water storage system (elevated steel tanks), were also computed and averaged 5%. The per capita water use at household level ranged from 9.22 l/p/d to 20.38 l/p/d with the average at 13.35 l/p/d. This is a measure of the equitable distribution of water. The household KAP survey on water access at household level yielded a per capita of 23.55 l/p/d. In view of the above findings, the study concluded that there were system inefficiencies in Kakuma Refugee Camp’s water reticulation system that resulted to water losses and wastages. To rectify the anomalies, it was recommended that UNHCR carries out a comprehensive hydraulic modelling of the entire system. A new test pumping for all the boreholes was recommended to determine their current yields. Installation of real time aquifer monitoring devices in the boreholes was recommended to monitor the aquifers. The study concluded that real time monitoring presented an effective, scientific way for collecting, transmitting, storing and analysis of data. This provides an effective platform for monitoring of provision of WASH and other interventions that can make use of Internet of Things (IoT) for effective monitoring.